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Error: #f88
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body {font-size:.75em; font-family:arial,helvetica; margin:0; padding:0;}

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h1,h2,h3 {padding-bottom:1px; margin-top:1.2em;margin-bottom:0.3em;}
h4,h5,h6 {margin-top:1em;}
h1 {font-size:1.35em;}
h2 {font-size:1.25em;}
h3 {font-size:1.1em;}
h4 {font-size:1em;}
h5 {font-size:.9em;}

hr {height:1px;}

a {text-decoration:none;}

dt {font-weight:bold;}

ol {list-style-type:decimal;}
ol ol {list-style-type:lower-alpha;}
ol ol ol {list-style-type:lower-roman;}
ol ol ol ol {list-style-type:decimal;}
ol ol ol ol ol {list-style-type:lower-alpha;}
ol ol ol ol ol ol {list-style-type:lower-roman;}
ol ol ol ol ol ol ol {list-style-type:decimal;}

.txtOptionInput {width:11em;}

#contentWrapper .chkOptionInput {border:0;}

.externalLink {text-decoration:underline;}

.indent {margin-left:3em;}
.outdent {margin-left:3em; text-indent:-3em;}
code.escaped {white-space:nowrap;}

.tiddlyLinkExisting {font-weight:bold;}
.tiddlyLinkNonExisting {font-style:italic;}

/* the 'a' is required for IE, otherwise it renders the whole tiddler in bold */
a.tiddlyLinkNonExisting.shadow {font-weight:bold;}

#mainMenu .tiddlyLinkExisting,
	#mainMenu .tiddlyLinkNonExisting,
	#sidebarTabs .tiddlyLinkNonExisting {font-weight:normal; font-style:normal;}
#sidebarTabs .tiddlyLinkExisting {font-weight:bold; font-style:normal;}

.header {position:relative;}
.header a:hover {background:transparent;}
.headerShadow {position:relative; padding:4.5em 0 1em 1em; left:-1px; top:-1px;}
.headerForeground {position:absolute; padding:4.5em 0 1em 1em; left:0px; top:0px;}

.siteTitle {font-size:3em;}
.siteSubtitle {font-size:1.2em;}

#mainMenu {position:absolute; left:0; width:10em; text-align:right; line-height:1.6em; padding:1.5em 0.5em 0.5em 0.5em; font-size:1.1em;}

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#sidebarOptions a {margin:0 0.2em; padding:0.2em 0.3em; display:block;}
#sidebarOptions input {margin:0.4em 0.5em;}
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#sidebarOptions .sliderPanel a {font-weight:bold; display:inline; padding:0;}
#sidebarOptions .sliderPanel input {margin:0 0 0.3em 0;}
#sidebarTabs .tabContents {width:15em; overflow:hidden;}

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.wizard h1 {font-size:2em; font-weight:bold; background:none; padding:0; margin:0.4em 0 0.2em;}
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.tagClear {clear:both;}

.footer {font-size:.9em;}
.footer li {display:inline;}

.annotation {padding:0.5em; margin:0.5em;}

* html .viewer pre {width:99%; padding:0 0 1em 0;}
.viewer {line-height:1.4em; padding-top:0.5em;}
.viewer .button {margin:0 0.25em; padding:0 0.25em;}
.viewer blockquote {line-height:1.5em; padding-left:0.8em;margin-left:2.5em;}
.viewer ul, .viewer ol {margin-left:0.5em; padding-left:1.5em;}

.viewer table, table.twtable {border-collapse:collapse; margin:0.8em 1.0em;}
.viewer th, .viewer td, .viewer tr,.viewer caption,.twtable th, .twtable td, .twtable tr,.twtable caption {padding:3px;}
table.listView {font-size:0.85em; margin:0.8em 1.0em;}
table.listView th, table.listView td, table.listView tr {padding:0px 3px 0px 3px;}

.viewer pre {padding:0.5em; margin-left:0.5em; font-size:1.2em; line-height:1.4em; overflow:auto;}
.viewer code {font-size:1.2em; line-height:1.4em;}

.editor {font-size:1.1em;}
.editor input, .editor textarea {display:block; width:100%; font:inherit;}
.editorFooter {padding:0.25em 0; font-size:.9em;}
.editorFooter .button {padding-top:0px; padding-bottom:0px;}

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.sparktick {outline:0;}

.zoomer {font-size:1.1em; position:absolute; overflow:hidden;}
.zoomer div {padding:1em;}

* html #backstage {width:99%;}
* html #backstageArea {width:99%;}
#backstageArea {display:none; position:relative; overflow: hidden; z-index:150; padding:0.3em 0.5em;}
#backstageToolbar {position:relative;}
#backstageArea a {font-weight:bold; margin-left:0.5em; padding:0.3em 0.5em;}
#backstageButton {display:none; position:absolute; z-index:175; top:0; right:0;}
#backstageButton a {padding:0.1em 0.4em; margin:0.1em;}
#backstage {position:relative; width:100%; z-index:50;}
#backstagePanel {display:none; z-index:100; position:absolute; width:90%; margin-left:3em; padding:1em;}
.backstagePanelFooter {padding-top:0.2em; float:right;}
.backstagePanelFooter a {padding:0.2em 0.4em;}
#backstageCloak {display:none; z-index:20; position:absolute; width:100%; height:100px;}

.whenBackstage {display:none;}
.backstageVisible .whenBackstage {display:block;}
/*}}}*/
/***
StyleSheet for use when a translation requires any css style changes.
This StyleSheet can be used directly by languages such as Chinese, Japanese and Korean which need larger font sizes.
***/
/*{{{*/
body {font-size:0.8em;}
#sidebarOptions {font-size:1.05em;}
#sidebarOptions a {font-style:normal;}
#sidebarOptions .sliderPanel {font-size:0.95em;}
.subtitle {font-size:0.8em;}
.viewer table.listView {font-size:0.95em;}
/*}}}*/
/*{{{*/
@media print {
#mainMenu, #sidebar, #messageArea, .toolbar, #backstageButton, #backstageArea {display: none !important;}
#displayArea {margin: 1em 1em 0em;}
noscript {display:none;} /* Fixes a feature in Firefox 1.5.0.2 where print preview displays the noscript content */
}
/*}}}*/
<!--{{{-->
<div class='header' macro='gradient vert [[ColorPalette::PrimaryLight]] [[ColorPalette::PrimaryMid]]'>
<div class='headerShadow'>
<span class='siteTitle' refresh='content' tiddler='SiteTitle'></span>&nbsp;
<span class='siteSubtitle' refresh='content' tiddler='SiteSubtitle'></span>
</div>
<div class='headerForeground'>
<span class='siteTitle' refresh='content' tiddler='SiteTitle'></span>&nbsp;
<span class='siteSubtitle' refresh='content' tiddler='SiteSubtitle'></span>
</div>
</div>
<div id='mainMenu' refresh='content' tiddler='MainMenu'></div>
<div id='sidebar'>
<div id='sidebarOptions' refresh='content' tiddler='SideBarOptions'></div>
<div id='sidebarTabs' refresh='content' force='true' tiddler='SideBarTabs'></div>
</div>
<div id='displayArea'>
<div id='messageArea'></div>
<div id='tiddlerDisplay'></div>
</div>
<!--}}}-->
<!--{{{-->
<div class='toolbar' macro='toolbar [[ToolbarCommands::ViewToolbar]]'></div>
<div class='title' macro='view title'></div>
<div class='subtitle'><span macro='view modifier link'></span>, <span macro='view modified date'></span> (<span macro='message views.wikified.createdPrompt'></span> <span macro='view created date'></span>)</div>
<div class='tagging' macro='tagging'></div>
<div class='tagged' macro='tags'></div>
<div class='viewer' macro='view text wikified'></div>
<div class='tagClear'></div>
<!--}}}-->
<!--{{{-->
<div class='toolbar' macro='toolbar [[ToolbarCommands::EditToolbar]]'></div>
<div class='title' macro='view title'></div>
<div class='editor' macro='edit title'></div>
<div macro='annotations'></div>
<div class='editor' macro='edit text'></div>
<div class='editor' macro='edit tags'></div><div class='editorFooter'><span macro='message views.editor.tagPrompt'></span><span macro='tagChooser excludeLists'></span></div>
<!--}}}-->
To get started with this blank [[TiddlyWiki]], you'll need to modify the following tiddlers:
* [[SiteTitle]] & [[SiteSubtitle]]: The title and subtitle of the site, as shown above (after saving, they will also appear in the browser title bar)
* [[MainMenu]]: The menu (usually on the left)
* [[DefaultTiddlers]]: Contains the names of the tiddlers that you want to appear when the TiddlyWiki is opened
You'll also need to enter your username for signing your edits: <<option txtUserName>>
These [[InterfaceOptions]] for customising [[TiddlyWiki]] are saved in your browser

Your username for signing your edits. Write it as a [[WikiWord]] (eg [[JoeBloggs]])

<<option txtUserName>>
<<option chkSaveBackups>> [[SaveBackups]]
<<option chkAutoSave>> [[AutoSave]]
<<option chkRegExpSearch>> [[RegExpSearch]]
<<option chkCaseSensitiveSearch>> [[CaseSensitiveSearch]]
<<option chkAnimate>> [[EnableAnimations]]

----
Also see [[AdvancedOptions]]
<<importTiddlers>>
In evaluating the success of teacher development programs, valid and scalable measures of teaching practice are needed. We have developed and validated the Science Lesson Plan Analysis Instrument (SLPAI) for quantitative evaluation of teacher-generated multiday lesson plans. This paper presents the SLPAI as a complement to surveys and classroom observation, and demonstrates its use in 2 pilot studies. The SLPAI was used formatively to measure the teaching practices of incoming program cohorts and tailor program instruction. It was also used to track changes in teaching practice and pedagogical knowledge of participants over time, providing summative evidence of program effectiveness. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:1096–1126, 2008
Jacobs, C. L., Martin, S. N. and Otieno, T. C. (2008), A Science Lesson Plan Analysis Instrument for formative and summative program evaluation of a teacher education program. Science Education, 92: 1096–1126. doi: 10.1002/sce.20277
Argumentation is a central goal of science education because it engages students in a complex scientific practice in which they construct and justify knowledge claims. Although there is a growing body of research around argumentation, there has been little focus on developing a learning progression for this practice. We describe a learning progression to understand both students' work in scientific argumentation and the ways in which the instructional environment can support students in that practice. This learning progression describes three dimensions: (1) instructional context, (2) argumentative product, and (3) argumentative process. In this paper, we compare four examples from elementary, middle, and high school science classrooms to explore the ways in which students' arguments vary in complexity across grade level and instructional contexts. Our comparisons suggest that simplifying the instructional context may facilitate students in engaging in other aspects of argumentation in more complex ways. The instructional context may also be used as a tool to support students in argumentation in new content areas and to increase the complexity of their written arguments, which may be weaker than their oral arguments. Furthermore, classroom norms play an important role in supporting students of all ages, including elementary students, in argumentation. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:765–793, 2010

Berland, L. K. and McNeill, K. L. (2010), A learning progression for scientific argumentation: Understanding student work and designing supportive instructional contexts. Science Education, 94: 765–793. doi: 10.1002/sce.20402
Allchin, D. (2007), A people's history of science: Miners, midwives, and “low mechanicks”. Science Education, 91: 842–843. doi: 10.1002/sce.20230
During the past few decades, researchers from a cognitive science tradition and a sociocultural perspective on learning have discussed how to understand students' conceptions of the earth. In this article, some of the questions discussed in this debate are elaborated in relation to meaning making in educational settings. The aim is to illustrate how an approach built on pragmatism and Wittgenstein's works makes it possible to take the role of both situation and experiences into account within a sociocultural perspective on learning. In video-recordings of second and fourth–fifth graders working in pairs meaning making is studied using practical epistemology analysis, i.e., what children talk about as relevant and what experiences they reactualize when answering questions. By analyzing the role of reactualization of experience, the role of reactualization and situation in making questions and problems intelligible, and the individuals' encounters with artifacts and the consequences of this in meaning making, we elucidate why it is important to consider meaning making in situ as an empirical question. It is concluded that the way questions are made intelligible will direct the meaning making and when using an artifact to answer questions, it is not the artifact in itself, but the specific use of the artifact that mediates action. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:689–709, 2010

Lidar, M., Almqvist, J. and Östman, L. (2010), A pragmatist approach to meaning making in children's discussions about gravity and the shape of the earth. Science Education, 94: 689–709. doi: 10.1002/sce.20384
Conceptual change is often described as a causal process in which changes in an embraced system of beliefs result in a new system of beliefs. Here, it is argued that conceptual change is better understood as an intentional activity with regard to the learner, that is, what the learner is doing when trying to understand something. Children were interviewed every year during a period of 3 years from their ages of 4–6 years of age. In the study, there were 37 children participating, of which 29 were followed during all 3 years. They were asked to tell about their beliefs about the earth, and their developing understanding is described. The results show that in the conceptual changes the children's main concern was to restructure the often vast amount of knowledge they possessed. This reconstruction is described as a simultaneous reconstruction of conceptual contexts as well as contexts for their application. This also directs the focus of conceptual change from specific conceptions to structural changes. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:640–664, 2010

Larsson, Å. and Halldén, O. (2010), A structural view on the emergence of a conception: Conceptual change as radical reconstruction of contexts. Science Education, 94: 640–664. doi: 10.1002/sce.20377
This study first used a new approach, combining students' ontological beliefs and process explanations, to represent students' mental models of heat conduction and then examined the relationships between their mental models and their predictions. Clinical interviews were conducted to probe 30 undergraduate physics students' mental models and their predictions about heat conduction. This study adopted a constant comparative method to discover patterns of the participants' responses across the various sources of data, such as verbal utterances, writings, and drawings. The results indicate that, based on the identified five process analogies for how heat is conducted and three ontological beliefs about the material basis for heat conduction, the combinations of these two aspects can better represent their mental models in terms of both the underlying mechanisms and emergent processes of heat conduction than using either alone as has sometimes been done in prior research. In addition, while a scientifically accepted mental model had a better chance to be accompanied by a correct prediction, a correct prediction might not result from a scientifically accepted mental model. However, as suggested by some cognitive psychologists, regardless of which mental models the participants possessed, they tended to automatically retrieve their learned rules or past experience, instead of manipulating their mental models, to generate predictions for the encountered problems. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:825–854, 2009

Chiou, G.-L. and Anderson, O. R. (2010), A study of undergraduate physics students' understanding of heat conduction based on mental model theory and an ontology–process analysis. Science Education, 94: 825–854. doi: 10.1002/sce.20385
This study documents the views of effective professional development held by eight professional development (PD) providers, representing four informal science institutions (ISI) and four programs within two institutions of higher education (IHE) in a large midwestern metropolitan area in the United States. This study finds that, while the reported learning and outcome agendas of the providers were similar across the board, a dichotomy in approach to PD emerged according to the type of institution. This dichotomy between ISI and IHE was persistent across thematic categories: (1) language use and meaning, (2) teacher outcomes as a result of PD, (3) resource strengths for teaching and learning, and (4) determination of content and course offerings. The significance of this research is threefold. First, the identification and characterization of important features of teacher PD in ISI is an important contribution to the PD literature, since most previous studies focus on IHE. Second, this study elucidates important differences between the two types of providers with respect to their views of inquiry, currently a fundamental component of PD for science teachers. Third, previously unreported gaps and overlaps in belief systems of PD from two institutions types, ISI and IHE, are identified. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:604–628, 2007

Astor-Jack, T., McCallie, E. and Balcerzak, P. (2007), Academic and informal science education practitioner views about professional development in science education. Science Education, 91: 604–628. doi: 10.1002/sce.20205
Despite considerable focus on evolution knowledge–belief relationships, little research has targeted populations with strong content backgrounds, such as undergraduate degrees in biology. This study (1) measured precertified biology and non-biology teachers' (n = 167) knowledge of evolution and the nature of science; (2) quantified teacher preferences for the teaching of creationism in schools; (3) examined the associations among knowledge and belief variables; and (4) contrasted the knowledge and beliefs of prospective biology teachers with those of non-biology teachers. Methodologically, teacher knowledge was quantified by using three measures and studied in relation to certification area, self-reported religiosity, personal conflict concerning science and religion, and completion of an evolution course. We found (1) generally low levels of knowledge of evolution and the nature of science—and high misconception magnitudes—in both biology and non-biology teachers; (2) comparable antievolutionary positions in biology and non-biology teachers: nearly half of the teachers in both groups advocated for the inclusion of creationism in school; (3) weak association between knowledge and preference/belief variables; and (4) no difference in preference for teaching creationism between those teachers who had taken an evolution course and those who had not. Overall, biology and non-biology teachers were found to display “mixed” and “novice naturalistic” evolutionary reasoning patterns. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:1122–1146, 2009

Nehm, R. H., Kim, S. Y. and Sheppard, K. (2009), Academic preparation in biology and advocacy for teaching evolution: Biology versus non-biology teachers. Science Education, 93: 1122–1146. doi: 10.1002/sce.20340
Researchers are becoming aware of the influence of students' presuppositions in directing their construction of science concepts. When these are entrenched and drastically nonscientific, they predispose the children to alternative explanatory frameworks that are inhibiting, especially in a knowledge domain such as genetics. In this study, we identified such nonscientific presuppositions among 17- to 18-year-old secondary school students from the Igbo community of Southeastern Nigeria. We designed a research-based instructional model to address these presuppositions. The relationship between the levels of nonscientific presuppositions held by students and their achievement in genetics was assessed. Finally, the effect of the instructional model on students' relinquishing these nonscientific presuppositions and on their achievement was determined relative to a comparison group. It was found that this group of students had nonscientific presuppositions that they used in explaining genetic phenomena, and that the present instructional model aided the students in relinquishing these nonscientific presuppositions to a great extent. We conclude that a conceptual change model that addresses explicitly nonscientific presuppositions will lead to an increased understanding of science concepts. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:419–438, 2007

Mbajiorgu, N. M., Ezechi, N. G. and Idoko, E. C. (2007), Addressing nonscientific presuppositions in genetics using a conceptual change strategy. Science Education, 91: 419–438. doi: 10.1002/sce.20202
This qualitative study examined the perspectives of African American parents as it pertained to informal science education. The following questions guided this study: (1) What are the desires of African American parents/guardians with respect to informal science programs and experiences for their children?; (2) What happens in Jordan Academy, an enrichment program that has successfully recruited African American students?; and (3) What are the African American parents'/guardians' opinions of the program? We inductively and deductively analyzed classroom observations; academy curriculum; photos and videotaped class sessions students' written responses to open-ended items on the program's evaluation; and teachers' and parents' responses to semistructured, audio-recorded interviews. We viewed the analysis results from Boykin's Black cultural ethos (BCE). We further interpreted the study's findings from a critical sociocultural perspective that employed a model synthesized from Cole's cultural-historical framework, Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory, and Boykin's triple quandary. Results indicated that most of the African American parents' desires and opinions align with seven of the nine dimensions of Boykin's BCE. The parents' opinions highlight the potential impact of culture on parental choice to enroll their children into an informal science program. The study has important implications for practices within and research on informal science education. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93: 293–321, 2009

Simpson, J. S. and Parsons, E. C. (2009), African American perspectives and informal science educational experiences. Science Education, 93: 293–321. doi: 10.1002/sce.20300
Alignment between content standards and standardized tests is a significant issue to society, science pedagogy, and test validation. To better understand the issues related to alignment, this study compares the alignment in physics among three education systems: Jiangsu (China), New York State (United States), and Singapore. The same coding framework for content standards and standardized tests is used to compute the alignment indices in the three education systems. It was found that there was a statistically significant alignment between the New York content standard and the standardized test for physics, but there was not a statistically significant alignment for Chinese and Singapore physics. The insignificant alignment for Chinese and Singapore physics was due to a shift toward higher level cognitive reasoning skills from content standards to standardized tests. For Chinese physics, the insignificant alignment was also due to a heavier emphasis on electricity in the test than in the content standard. Both significant and insignificant alignments may result in desirable and undesirable effects on guiding classroom instruction. Thus, ongoing study of the alignment between a science content standard and the standardized test is necessary for any education system, and alignment studies may be used as a means of teacher professional development for improving student achievement. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:777–797, 2009

Liu, X., Zhang, B., Liang, L. L., Fulmer, G., Kim, B. and Yuan, H. (2009), Alignment between the physics content standard and the standardized test: A comparison among the United States-New York State, Singapore, and China-Jiangsu. Science Education, 93: 777–797. doi: 10.1002/sce.20330
Wellington, J. (2007), America's lab report: Investigations in high school science. Science Education, 91: 514–515. doi: 10.1002/sce.20211
One goal of project-based science is to promote the development of scientific discourse communities in classrooms. Holding rich high school scientific discussions is challenging, especially when the demands of content and norms of high school science pose challenges to their enactment. There is little research on how high school teachers enact scientific discussions using project-based science curricula, making the kinds of necessary embedded supports unclear. To address that gap in the research literature, this study analyzed curriculum supports and embedded educative features for the enactment of science discussions in one high school project-based science curriculum. Through a study of teacher enactment and a comparison of the curriculum discussion supports, we observed that while teachers increased their attempts to engage in inquiry-based discussion practices where supports were offered, they relied on heavily on traditional “recitation” formats, demonstrating that existing curricular supports were not developed enough to support dialogic classroom interactions. We hypothesize about conditions that may contribute to the pervasiveness of typical discourse practices in high school science discussions. We argue for expanded curricular discussion supports for teachers and design research on developing discussions in high school project-based science classrooms to examine how such supports are taken up, dismissed, or modified in practice. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:395–427, 2010

Alozie, N. M., Moje, E. B. and Krajcik, J. S. (2010), An analysis of the supports and constraints for scientific discussion in high school project-based science. Science Education, 94: 395–427. doi: 10.1002/sce.20365
Models and modeling are a major issue in science studies and in science education. In addressing such an issue, we first propose an epistemological discussion based on the works of Cartwright (1983, 1999), Fleck (1935/1979), and Hacking (1983). This leads us to emphasize the transitions between the abstract and the concrete in the modeling process, by using the notions of nomogical machine (Cartwright, 1999), language game (Wittgenstein, 1953/1997), and thought style (Fleck, 1935/1979). Then, in the light of our epistemological approach, we study four cases coming from the implementations of research-based design activities (SESAMES, 2007). These four case studies illustrate how students are engaged in constructing relations between the abstract and the concrete through modeling activities, by elaborating at the same time specific language games and appropriate thought styles. Finally, we draw some implications for science teaching. It is suggested that considering didactic nomological machines as embedding knowledge on the one hand, and classes as thought collectives, on the other hand, may relevantly contribute to science education and science education research. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:424–446, 2008

Sensevy, G., Tiberghien, A., Santini, J., Laubé, S. and Griggs, P. (2008), An epistemological approach to modeling: Cases studies and implications for science teaching. Science Education, 92: 424–446. doi: 10.1002/sce.20268
Lee, M. (2009), Applying cognitive science to education: Thinking and learning in scientific and other complex domains. Science Education, 93: 1147–1149. doi: 10.1002/sce.20354
Nearly 79,000 questions sent to an Internet-based Ask-A-Scientist site during the last decade were analyzed according to the surfer's age, gender, country of origin, and the year the question was sent. The sample demonstrated a surprising dominance of female contributions among K-12 students (although this dominance did not carry over to the full sample), where offline situations are commonly characterized by males' greater interest in science. This female enthusiasm was observed in different countries, and had no correlation to the level of gender equity in those countries. This suggests that the Internet as a free-choice science-learning environment plays a potentially empowering and democratic role that is especially relevant to populations that are traditionally deprived of equal opportunities in learning formal science. However, worldwide, girls' interest in submitting questions to scientists dropped as they grew older relative to the boys' interest, and the stereotypically gendered science interests persisted in this environment as well. The strengths and limitations of using free-choice Web-based data sources for studying youth interest in science are discussed. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:131–160, 2009

Baram-Tsabari, A., Sethi, R. J., Bry, L. and Yarden, A. (2009), Asking scientists: A decade of questions analyzed by age, gender, and country. Science Education, 93: 131–160. doi: 10.1002/sce.20284
We use a construct-based assessment approach to measure learning progression of energy concepts across physical, life, and earth science contexts in middle school grades. We model the knowledge integration construct in six levels in terms of the numbers of ideas and links used in student-generated explanations. For this study, we selected 10 items addressing energy source, transformation, and conservation from published standardized tests and administered them to a status quo sample of 2688 middle school students taught by 29 teachers in 12 schools across 5 states. Results based on a Rasch partial credit model analysis indicate that conservation items are associated with the highest knowledge integration levels, followed by transformation and source items. Comparisons across three middle school grades and across physical, life, and earth science contexts reveal that the mean knowledge integration level of eighth-grade students is significantly higher than that of sixth- or seventh-grade students, and that the mean knowledge integration level of students who took a physical science course is significantly higher than that of students who took a life or earth science course. We discuss implications for research on learning progressions. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:665–688, 2010

Lee, H.-S. and Liu, O. L. (2010), Assessing learning progression of energy concepts across middle school grades: The knowledge integration perspective. Science Education, 94: 665–688. doi: 10.1002/sce.20382
Theoretical and empirical research on argument and argumentation in science education has intensified over the last two decades. The term “argument” in this review refers to the artifacts that a student or a group of students create when asked to articulate and justify claims or explanations whereas the term “argumentation” refers to the process of constructing these artifacts. The intent of this review is to provide an overview of several analytic frameworks that science educators use to assess and characterize the nature of or quality of scientific arguments in terms of three focal issues: structure, justification, and content. To highlight the foci, affordances, and constraints of these different analytic methods, the review of each framework includes an analysis of a sample argument. The review concludes with a synthesis of the three focal issues and outlines several recommendations for future work. Ultimately, this examination and synthesis of these frameworks in terms of how each conceptualizes argument structure, justification, and content is intended to provide a theoretical foundation for future research on argument in science education. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:447–472, 2008

Sampson, V. and Clark, D. B. (2008), Assessment of the ways students generate arguments in science education: Current perspectives and recommendations for future directions. Science Education, 92: 447–472. doi: 10.1002/sce.20276
This qualitative multiple case study explored the conceptual frameworks of two congenitally blind male adolescents on the nature of matter. We examined participants' responses on four tactile investigations focused on concepts and processes associated with matter changes. The matter changes investigated were dissolution, chemical change, expansion, and condensation. Individual interview and model-making sessions comprised the primary data collection, whereas journal writing and focus group interviews provided additional, secondary data. Participants' responses during matter activities were analyzed by using three data frames: structural views of matter, types of understanding of matter changes, and conceptual consistency of students' explanatory schemes. Coding of the responses identified macro- (physically observable) and microparticulate (invisible) views of matter and both scientifically accurate and alternate understandings of matter changes coexisting within one response set. Data analysis led to the development of individual meandering mind maps as an analytical tool that illustrates the shifting of each participant's thinking between the macro- and microparticulate views of matter. A meandering mind map utilized in the study consists of a macroparticulate outer layer, microparticulate inner layer, and an interface layer that includes lynchpin concepts compound, molecule, atom, and element. The lynchpin concepts are perceived to mediate and scaffold cognitive shifts between the macroparticulate and the microparticulate views of matter. During individual interviews, each participant's responses were coded to one of the three categories, plotted in clockwise sequence and connected with a line. The findings include that congenitally blind participants hold (a) both macro- and microparticulate views of the nature of matter, (b) scientifically accepted and scientifically alternative understandings about matter concepts, and (c) conceptually inconsistent explanatory schemes of matter across the four data collection activities. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:448–477, 2010

Smothers, S. M. and Goldston, M. J. (2010), Atoms, elements, molecules, and matter: An investigation into the congenitally blind adolescents' conceptual frameworks on the nature of matter. Science Education, 94: 448–477. doi: 10.1002/sce.20369
Studies of learning in school settings indicate that many students frame activities in science classes as the production of answers for the teacher or test, rather than as making new sense of the natural world. A case study of an episode from a class taught by the first author demonstrates what productive and unproductive student framing can look like in a science classroom. The case study demonstrates how some student activity commonly seen as undesirable may be evidence of productive framing, and activity commonly viewed as desirable may be seen as evidence of unproductive framing. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:506–524, 2010

Hutchison, P. and Hammer, D. (2010), Attending to student epistemological framing in a science classroom. Science Education, 94: 506–524. doi: 10.1002/sce.20373
Helping students better understand how scientists reason and argue to draw scientific conclusions has long been viewed as a critical component of scientific literacy, thus remains a central goal of science instruction. However, differences of opinion persist regarding the nature of scientific reasoning, argumentation, and discovery. Accordingly, the primary goal of this paper is to employ the inferences of abduction, retroduction, deduction, and induction to introduce a pattern of scientific reasoning, argumentation, and discovery that is postulated to be universal, thus can serve as an instructional framework to improve student reasoning and argumentative skills. The paper first analyzes three varied and presumably representative case histories in terms of the four inferences (i.e., Galileo's discovery of Jupiter's moons, Rosemary and Peter Grants' research on Darwin's finches, and Marshall Nirenberg's Nobel Prize–winning research on genetic coding). Each case history reveals a pattern of reasoning and argumentation used during explanation testing that can be summarized in an If/then/Therefore form. The paper then summarizes additional cases also exemplary of the form. Implications of the resulting theory are discussed in terms of improving the quality of research and classroom instruction. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:336–364, 2010

Lawson, A. E. (2010), Basic inferences of scientific reasoning, argumentation, and discovery. Science Education, 94: 336–364. doi: 10.1002/sce.20357
The first years of teaching can be demanding, as the novice works to gain familiarity with many aspects of professional work. Often, what they have been prepared to do in teacher education programs is not aligned with what is expected at them in schools. As a consequence, many teachers leave the profession or move away from the reform-minded practice emphasized in their preparation as they accept the norms of their new community of practice. Using cultural historical activity theory, this comparative case study explored two beginning science teachers' transition into the teaching profession and the roles a community of practice played in this transition. Findings suggest that these science teachers were influenced by the social and professional structures at their schools and by the level of institutional and interpersonal support they received from peer teachers and administrators. The extent to which these teachers became involved in the community of practices at their schools greatly influenced their instructional practice. Implications suggest that science teacher preparation and induction programs must go beyond simply emphasizing teaching and learning—they must also address strategies young teachers can use to access the support they need to be able to consistently enact reform-based practices. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:996–1025, 2009

Saka, Y., Southerland, S. A. and Brooks, J. S. (2009), Becoming a member of a school community while working toward science education reform: Teacher induction from a cultural historical activity theory (CHAT) perspective. Science Education, 93: 996–1025. doi: 10.1002/sce.20342
In this ethnographic study of summer undergraduate research (UR) experiences at four liberal arts colleges, where faculty and students work collaboratively on a project of mutual interest in an apprenticeship of authentic science research work, analysis of the accounts of faculty and student participants yields comparative insights into the structural elements of this form of UR program and its benefits for students. Comparison of the perspectives of faculty and their students revealed considerable agreement on the nature, range, and extent of students' UR gains. Specific student gains relating to the process of “becoming a scientist” were described and illustrated by both groups. Faculty framed these gains as part of professional socialization into the sciences. In contrast, students emphasized their personal and intellectual development, with little awareness of their socialization into professional practice. Viewing study findings through the lens of social constructivist learning theories demonstrates that the characteristics of these UR programs, how faculty practice UR in these colleges, and students' outcomes—including cognitive and personal growth and the development of a professional identity—strongly exemplify many facets of these theories, particularly, student-centered and situated learning as part of cognitive apprenticeship in a community of practice. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:36–74, 2007

Hunter, A.-B., Laursen, S. L. and Seymour, E. (2007), Becoming a scientist: The role of undergraduate research in students' cognitive, personal, and professional development. Science Education, 91: 36–74. doi: 10.1002/sce.20173
Current science education reform efforts highlight the importance of engaging students in scientifically oriented questions as a central dimension of inquiry-based elementary science. However, elementary teachers, particularly beginning teachers, must often overcome a variety of challenges to engage their students in reform-minded, standards-based, inquiry-oriented classroom practice. To better support beginning elementary teachers' learning to support students to ask and answer scientifically oriented questions, it is necessary to better understand their beliefs about questions and questioning, as well as how they negotiate these beliefs at this crucial stage of the teacher professional continuum. Four beginning elementary teachers were studied longitudinally over their first 3 years of professional teaching careers. Results show that each teacher cited the importance of driving questions and investigation questions to establish purpose and promote student sense-making. However, they followed different trajectories in reconciling their ideas about the use of driving questions and investigation questions in light of the particular facets of science teaching they prioritized. These findings have important implications for current perspectives on teacher learning along the teacher professional continuum and help inform research on teachers and teaching, as well as teacher education and science curriculum development. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:365–387, 2010

Forbes, C. T. and Davis, E. A. (2010), Beginning elementary teachers' beliefs about the use of anchoring questions in science: A longitudinal study. Science Education, 94: 365–387. doi: 10.1002/sce.20370
We use a 10-year program of research centered on iterations of one elementary science methods course as a vehicle for exploring three important and interrelated goals for the learning of beginning elementary teachers. These include learning about inquiry-oriented science teaching, using science curriculum materials effectively, and anticipating and working with students' ideas in instruction. For each goal we discuss how the literature informs our thinking, describe relevant aspects of our design of the course, and present findings of our research with regard to preservice teachers' experiences in and learning from aspects of the course. For each goal, we also highlight examples from our longitudinal work following the preservice teachers into their early years as elementary teachers, to provide a glimpse of teachers' trajectories related to each of the themes. We close with a discussion of implications for research and practice in elementary science teacher education. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:745–770, 2009

Davis, E. A. and Smithey, J. (2009), Beginning teachers moving toward effective elementary science teaching. Science Education, 93: 745–770. doi: 10.1002/sce.20311
Students' difficulties with learning science have generally been framed in terms of their generalized conceptual knowledge of a science topic as elicited through their explanations of natural phenomena. In this paper, we empirically explore what more goes into giving a scientific account of a natural phenomenon than giving such generalized explanations. We audio-recorded pairs of upper secondary students during laboratory work in electrochemistry. We used a situative and pragmatist approach to study learning in action. This approach made it possible to study how the particulars and contingencies of working with a real electrochemical cell went into students' reasoning. Our results show that students needed to learn to make distinctions, recognize, and name the particulars in encounters with their cell. They also needed to learn what counts as reasonable readings and to deal with quantitative issues and correlations pertaining to their cell. We refer to these additional learning requirements as the students' taxonomic and measurement interests. Implications for what is involved in giving a scientific account of a natural phenomenon in school are discussed. The study constitutes an attempt to include, in a systematic way, also the particulars and contingencies of actual practice in an account of students' reasoning in science. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci. Ed93:1026–1049, 2009

Hamza, K. M. and Wickman, P.-O. (2009), Beyond explanations: What else do students need to understand science?. Science Education, 93: 1026–1049. doi: 10.1002/sce.20343
One hundred years after its conception, the scientific method continues to reinforce a kind of cultural lore about what it means to participate in inquiry. As commonly implemented in venues ranging from middle school classrooms to undergraduate laboratories, it emphasizes the testing of predictions rather than ideas, focuses learners on material activity at the expense of deep subject matter understanding, and lacks epistemic framing relevant to the discipline. While critiques of the scientific method are not new, its cumulative effects on learners' conceptions of science have not been clearly articulated. We discuss these effects using findings from a series of five studies with degree-holding graduates of our educational system who were preparing to enter the teaching profession and apprentice their own young learners into unproblematic images of how science is done. We then offer an alternative vision for investigative science—model-based inquiry (MBI)—as a system of activity and discourse that engages learners more deeply with content and embodies five epistemic characteristics of scientific knowledge: that ideas represented in the form of models are testable, revisable, explanatory, conjectural, and generative. We represent MBI as an interconnected set of classroom conversations and provide examples of its implementation and its limitations. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:941–967, 2008

Windschitl, M., Thompson, J. and Braaten, M. (2008), Beyond the scientific method: Model-based inquiry as a new paradigm of preference for school science investigations. Science Education, 92: 941–967. doi: 10.1002/sce.20259
Perhaps, we are at the fork in the road when it is imperative that we consider whether the pursuit of pluralism in science education is a worthwhile endeavor in light of recent educational reforms that seem to decorate the true aim of education. The “decorated landscapes” of educational reform concentrate on economic growth and do little to promote the conservation of Earth's natural environments that sustain life itself. Here we renew a discussion of a 300-year pursuit in the United States toward educational landscapes that contribute to students' lives. We connect with scholars who have pursued the pluralistic landscapes of culture in an attempt to make education more authentic and democratic and with scholars who have pursued an education for the conservation of the Earth's natural environments. We argue that these two educational domains are and necessarily should be reflective, reliant, and reciprocal of each other if we wish to truly engage students in scientific literacy—the authentic, relevant, and meaningful science education experiences that contribute a person's existence. Finally, we offer recommendations which aim to focus on the many meaningful landscapes that contribute to pluralistic life in science education. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:321–338, 2007

Mueller, M. P. and Bentley, M. L. (2007), Beyond the “decorated landscapes” of educational reform: Toward landscapes of pluralism in science education. Science Education, 91: 321–338. doi: 10.1002/sce.20190
Context-based and science–technology–society (STS) approaches to teaching science in high school have become widely used over the past two decades. They aspire to foster more positive attitudes to science while, at the same time, provide a sound basis of scientific understanding for further study. This paper reviews the detailed research evidence from 17 experimental studies undertaken in eight different countries on the effects of context-based and STS approaches, drawing on the findings of two systematic reviews of the research literature. The review findings indicate that context-based/STS approaches result in improvement in attitudes to science and that the understanding of scientific ideas developed is comparable to that of conventional approaches. The approaches also result in more positive attitudes to science in both girls and boys and reduce the gender differences in attitudes. The paper also considers issues emerging from work in the area in relation to study design and the constraints which may militate against the use of experimental research designs when gathering evidence of impact of interventions. A fundamental constraint is the extent to which it is possible to make comparisons between existing methods and interventions when the aims are overlapping but also differ in significant ways. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:347–370, 2007

Bennett, J., Lubben, F. and Hogarth, S. (2007), Bringing science to life: A synthesis of the research evidence on the effects of context-based and STS approaches to science teaching. Science Education, 91: 347–370. doi: 10.1002/sce.20186
This longitudinal study explored change in teachers' knowledge of subjects they teach from preservice training through 17 years of professional experience. It followed secondary school science teachers in Australia, through sequences of individual interviews in which change in content knowledge (mainly energy-related) was probed primarily via concept profiles—a word-association method. Change was found to be multifaceted, with details of unused content fading from memory, alongside growth that results from improved understanding and reorganization of structure more than from accretion of new material. Across personal and professional life tracks that produce variation between individuals, development is facilitated by “critical mass” of teachers' knowledge and interest in their chosen disciplines of study and certification, whereas deficiencies tend to persist in the other subjects they are asked to teach. The required curriculum is the single most powerful determinant of teacher knowledge, serving as both its organizer and source. Based on the study, a three-phase model of teacher content-knowledge development is proposed, and the discussion highlights the need for career-long support for growth, even in teachers' major subjects where expertise is taken for granted. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:221–251, 2008

Arzi, H. J. and White, R. T. (2008), Change in teachers' knowledge of subject matter: A 17-year longitudinal study. Science Education, 92: 221–251. doi: 10.1002/sce.20239
Ogunniyi, M. B. (2008), Changing teaching, changing times: Lessons from a South African township science classroom. Science Education, 92: 563–565. doi: 10.1002/sce.20281
Wenger's (1998) concepts “community of practice,” “brokering,” and “transfer” explain the challenges co-operative (co-op) education students face in relating the knowledge learned in school with what they learn while participating as members of a workplace. The research for this paper is set within the contexts of the knowledge economy and increased collaboration in the workplace. The paper draws on several qualitative studies of work-based education to examine the similarities and differences between learning in the workplace and learning in school, with a focus on science education and science-rich workplaces. Barriers to connecting school knowledge and workplace knowledge include the nature of science (its purpose, accountability, and substance), the structure of knowledge in each setting, the form content knowledge takes, the sequence that the curriculum is presented in, and the gatekeeping that occurs when knowledge is accessed. The paper addresses implications for interventions in school and the workplace, with attention to the transition from school to work, and concludes by pointing to profound obstacles to connecting school knowledge with workplace knowledge. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:115–132, 2007

Munby, H., Taylor, J., Chin, P. and Hutchinson, N. L. (2007), Co-op students' access to shared knowledge in science-rich workplaces. Science Education, 91: 115–132. doi: 10.1002/sce.20181
Bequette, M. B. (2010), Collaborative action research: Developing professional learning communities. Science Education, 94: 196–198. doi: 10.1002/sce.20363
Much of the research on students' understanding of the greenhouse effect and global warming reports poor results. Students are claimed to hold misconceptions and naïve beliefs, and the impact of teaching on their conceptions is also low. In the present study, these results are called into question, and it is argued that they may to a large extent be seen as artifacts of the research methods deployed, in particular when written questionnaires are used. When following students' project work in school over a long period, many of the misunderstandings reported in the literature do not appear. It is argued that the appropriation and use of scientific language when discussing complex socioscientific issues is a gradual process. When observing the language and mediational means students use over time, it is obvious that they are able to identify and use central distinctions in their interactions. They are also able to make productive use of texts and other materials that allow them to successively approximate scientific modes of reasoning. Thus, what students know emerges in communicative practices where they interact with others and with cultural tools in a focused activity. It is argued that students' knowledge of complex multidisciplinary phenomena of this kind may be particularly ill-suited to conventional questionnaire types of testing. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:978–995, 2009

Jakobsson, A., Mäkitalo, Å. and Säljö, R. (2009), Conceptions of knowledge in research on students' understanding of the greenhouse effect: Methodological positions and their consequences for representations of knowing. Science Education, 93: 978–995. doi: 10.1002/sce.20341
Argumentation has become an increasingly recognized focus for science instruction ~as a learning process, as an outcome associated with the appropriation of scientific discourse, and as a window onto the epistemic work of science. Only a small set of theoretical conceptualizations of argumentation have been deployed and investigated in science education, however, while a plethora of conceptualizations have been developed in the interdisciplinary fields associated with science studies and the learning sciences. This paper attempts to review a range of such theoretical conceptualizations of argumentation and discuss the possible implications for the orchestration of science education; the goal being that the science education research community might consider a broader range of argumentation forms and roles in conjunction with the learning of science. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:473–493, 2008

Bricker, L. A. and Bell, P. (2008), Conceptualizations of argumentation from science studies and the learning sciences and their implications for the practices of science education. Science Education, 92: 473–498. doi: 10.1002/sce.20278
Classrooms across the United States increasingly find White teachers paired with ethnic minority students, but few of these teachers are prepared for the disparities such cultural integration presents. This is particularly true vis-à-vis science education. While classrooms have diversified, science instruction has not necessarily followed suit. Two theories, constructivism and culturally relevant pedagogy, have been identified as mechanisms to diminish the disparities in science education. Yet culturally relevant pedagogy has not had the same impact as constructivism, even though it has been posited as a crucial means to better assure ethnic minority access to education. A case study of two classroom teachers investigates whether and how constructivism can be leveraged to develop culturally relevant pedagogy in science instruction. Identifying practical possibilities for culturally relevant pedagogy in science education is important for students, teachers, and the future of the U.S. workforce because it provides a means of increasing marginalized students' access to science and technological fields. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:994–1014, 2008

Patchen, T. and Cox-Petersen, A. (2008), Constructing cultural relevance in science: A case study of two elementary teachers. Science Education, 92: 994–1014. doi: 10.1002/sce.20282
This research presents a case study of two teachers' emphasis on students' academic identity as a means of facilitating their science literacy development. These cases support a theoretical position that deconstructs the notion of normative science literacy into its constitutive components: (a) being scientific and (b) appropriating its literate practices. Such a perspective views language as a substantive resource for academic identity construction. As such, we utilize a theoretical metaphor of “contextual shifting” to underscore teachers' central role in facilitating student understanding of literate practices associated with school science. Through a cross-case analysis of two elementary science classrooms, we identified ways that students' academic identities were connected to their affiliation with specific scientific literate practices. Our findings reveal that the teachers in both research classrooms utilized teaching practices designed to afford students opportunities to develop academic identities commensurate with science learning. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:1015–1041, 2008

Reveles, J. M. and Brown, B. A. (2008), Contextual shifting: Teachers emphasizing students' academic identity to promote scientific literacy. Science Education, 92: 1015–1041. doi: 10.1002/sce.20283
Sadler, T. D. (2010), Controversy in the classroom: The democratic power of discussion. Science Education, 94: 760–762. doi: 10.1002/sce.20380
Crawford, B. A. (2009), Creating effective undergraduate research programs in science: The transformation from student to scientist. Science Education, 93: 583–585. doi: 10.1002/sce.20336
Although there have been numerous studies that indicate the benefits of teachers and students working with scientists, there is little research that documents scientists' views of science education, science teacher preparation, and the goals of science education. Furthermore, little is known about how scientists' views of science education may differ from those held by science teachers. Through the use of semistructured interviews, the perceptions of 37 scientists from diverse science domains and 21 middle and high school science teachers were explored. Participating scientists expressed concerns about the variability in quality of teaching, programs, and resources available for science instruction. Scientists expressed a desire for teachers to have more experience conducting science research and developing their own critical thinking skills. When asked what goals are most important for science education, 40% of the scientists emphasized that teachers should make science fun and exciting for their students. Science teachers' perceptions of science education were compared with the scientists' perceptions. Thirty percent of the teachers agreed with the scientists that too much variability in program or instructional quality exists in science education. Seventy-six percent of the science teachers also thought there is a need to teach critical thinking skills, but more importantly there is a need to inspire creativity and a desire to learn science in students. Both teachers and scientists expressed concerns about how high-stakes accountability inhibits efforts to improve science education. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:1058–1075, 2008

Taylor, A. R., Jones, M. G., Broadwell, B. and Oppewal, T. (2008), Creativity, inquiry, or accountability? Scientists' and teachers' perceptions of science education. Science Education, 92: 1058–1075. doi: 10.1002/sce.20272
Waddington, D. (2009), Critical lessons: What our schools should teach. Science Education, 93: 774–776. doi: 10.1002/sce.20345
Although there has been considerable focus on the underrepresentation of minorities in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplines and the need for science instruction that fosters diversity, much of the associated effort has focused on the goal of diversity and tended to assume that science and science learning are acultural. We describe a conceptual framework employed in our work with both urban and rural Native American communities that focuses on culturally based epistemological orientations and their relation to the cultural practices associated with science instruction. We summarize evidence on the efficacy of community-based science education to support the proposition for a shift in orientation toward science education from aiming to have students adopt specific epistemologies to supporting students' navigation of multiple epistemologies. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:1008–1026, 2010

Bang, M. and Medin, D. (2010), Cultural processes in science education: Supporting the navigation of multiple epistemologies. Science Education, 94: 1008–1026. doi: 10.1002/sce.20392
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This study relates the performance of college students in introductory science courses to the amount of content covered in their high school science courses. The sample includes 8310 students in introductory biology, chemistry, or physics courses in 55 randomly chosen U.S. colleges and universities. Students who reported covering at least 1 major topic in depth, for a month or longer, in high school were found to earn higher grades in college science than did students who reported no coverage in depth. Students reporting breadth in their high school course, covering all major topics, did not appear to have any advantage in chemistry or physics and a significant disadvantage in biology. Care was taken to account for significant covariates: socioeconomic variables, English and mathematics proficiency, and rigor of their preparatory high science course. Alternative operationalizations of depth and breadth variables result in very similar findings. We conclude that teachers should use their judgment to reduce coverage in high school science courses and aim for mastery by extending at least 1 topic in depth over an extended period of time. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:798–826, 2009

Schwartz, M. S., Sadler, P. M., Sonnert, G. and Tai, R. H. (2009), Depth versus breadth: How content coverage in high school science courses relates to later success in college science coursework. Science Education, 93: 798–826. doi: 10.1002/sce.20328
Although misconceptions in science have been established in interview studies, their role during the learning process is poorly examined. In this paper, we use results from a classroom study to analyze to what extent nonscientific ideas in electrochemistry that students report in interviews enter into their learning in a more authentic setting. We audio-recorded talk between eight pairs of Swedish upper secondary students during a practical on electrochemical cells. Learning was operationalized on a discursive level as a description of what students do and say when taking part in an activity. This enabled an analysis of how encounters with misconceptions influenced the development of students' reasoning, compared to other encounters during the learning experience. Misconceptions did not constrain the development of students' reasoning. Rather, their reasoning developed in response to the contingencies of the specific situation. When misconceptions were encountered, they appeared as alternatives and questions not actively defended. Sometimes, encounters with these misconceptions were generative of the students' reasoning. The results indicate that demonstrating misconceptions in interviews is not enough to assume that they interfere with learning in other contexts. Educational implications and future lines of research based on these findings and on the methodology applied are discussed. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:141–164, 2008

Hamza, K. M. and Wickman, P.-O. (2008), Describing and analyzing learning in action: An empirical study of the importance of misconceptions in learning science. Science Education, 92: 141–164. doi: 10.1002/sce.20233
Bybee, R. W. (2009), Designing coherent science education: Implications for curriculum, instruction, and policy. Science Education, 93: 955–957. doi: 10.1002/sce.20346
The traditional pedagogical approach for teaching chemical bonding is often overly simplistic and not aligned with the most up-to-date scientific models. As a result, high-school students around the world lack fundamental understanding of chemical bonding. In order to improve students' understanding of this concept, it was essential to propose a systemic treatment, namely, revising the scientific content, the pedagogical approach, and the assessment methods regarding this concept. Therefore, the main goal of this study was to build a conceptual framework that provides an advanced scientific and pedagogical foundation regarding the chemical bonding concept—one that will guide chemistry curriculum developers as well. A conceptual framework for a new teaching approach was constructed with lead-chemistry teachers, science (chemistry) educators, and research chemists. We suggest that chemical bonding should be taught based on elemental principles and by using the idea of a continuum of bond strengths. Our process includes the formulation of learning goals aligned with current scientific knowledge. Moreover, we suggest that constructing assessment tasks on carefully specified learning goals, which are described in terms of learning performances, may enable educators to foster and examine much deeper levels of students' understanding. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:579–603, 2007

Nahum, T. L., Mamlok-Naaman, R., Hofstein, A. and Krajcik, J. (2007), Developing a new teaching approach for the chemical bonding concept aligned with current scientific and pedagogical knowledge. Science Education, 91: 579–603. doi: 10.1002/sce.20201
Learning progressions are ordered descriptions of students' understanding of a given concept. In this paper, we describe the iterative process of developing a force and motion learning progression and associated assessment items. We report on a pair of studies designed to explore the diagnosis of students' learning progression levels. First, we compare the use of ordered multiple-choice (OMC) and open-ended (OE) items for assessing students relative to the learning progression. OMC items appear to provide more precise diagnoses of students' learning progression levels and to be more valid, eliciting students' conceptions more similarly to cognitive interviews. Second, we explore evidence bearing on two challenges concerning reliability and validity of level diagnoses: the consistency with which students respond to items set in different contexts and the ways in which students interpret and use language in responding to items. As predicted, students do not respond consistently to similar problems set in different contexts. Although the language used in OMC items generally seems to reflect student thinking, misinterpretation of the language in items may lead to inaccurate diagnoses for a subset of students. Both issues are less problematic for classroom applications than for use of learning progressions in large-scale testing. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93: 389–421, 2009

Alonzo, A. C. and Steedle, J. T. (2009), Developing and assessing a force and motion learning progression. Science Education, 93: 389–421. doi: 10.1002/sce.20303
Preservice elementary teachers face many challenges in learning how to teach science effectively, such as engaging students in science, organizing instruction, and developing a productive learning community. This paper reports on several iterative cycles of design-based research aimed at fostering preservice teachers' principled reasoning around these problems of practice through modeling-centered scientific inquiry. The first design cycle introduced preservice teachers to modeling and simulation software tools in an effort to advance their understanding of science and technology; the second used an instructional framework embodying modeling-centered inquiry to advance their views of effective science teaching and their lesson-planning practices; the third engaged preservice teachers in analyzing and modifying curriculum materials using reform-based criteria to foster effective curriculum materials use. Outcomes from these iterations indicate that the preservice teachers were most likely to advance their knowledge and practices within a coherent approach that focused on a core scientific practice such as modeling-centered inquiry, provided opportunities to unpack and apply robust tools such as reform-based instructional frameworks, and addressed their perceived problems of practice. The findings from this set of approaches are compared to others in an effort to point toward promising future directions for effective science teacher education. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:720–744, 2009

Schwarz, C. (2009), Developing preservice elementary teachers' knowledge and practices through modeling-centered scientific inquiry. Science Education, 93: 720–744. doi: 10.1002/sce.20324
Atkins, L. J. (2009), Digital technologies and the museum experience: Handheld guides and other media. Science Education, 93: 1149–1151. doi: 10.1002/sce.20355
D. Klahr and M. Nigam (2004) make a case for the superiority of direct instruction over discovery learning in students' mastery of the control-of-variables strategy central to the scientific method. In the present work, we examine acquisition of this strategy among students of the same age as those studied by Klahr and Nigam, as well as follow central features of their design in directly comparing the two methods. In contrast to their design, however, we follow progress over an extended time period and a range of equivalent tasks. Three groups of 15 fourth-grade students, of diverse socioeconomic background, were compared. One group engaged in 12 sessions over 10 weeks working on problems that required the control-of-variables strategy for effective solution. Another group engaged in the same activity, preceded by a session involving direct instruction on the control-of-variables strategy. A third group received only the initial direct instruction, without subsequent engagement and practice. In this longer term framework, direct instruction appears to be neither a necessary nor sufficient condition for robust acquisition or for maintenance over time. The patterns of attainment observed here point instead to a gradual and extended process of acquisition and consolidation. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:384–397, 2007

Dean Jr., D. and Kuhn, D. (2007), Direct instruction vs. discovery: The long view. Science Education, 91: 384–397. doi: 10.1002/sce.20194
This article explores the relation between how scientific knowledge is created and the reasoning involved in learning content with understanding. Although an asserted parallel between these underpins reform, little is actually known about this relation. This article offers a model of this relation that draws coherent connections between the science studies literature, which suggests ways of conceiving how scientific knowledge is created; and sociocultural learning theory, which suggests ways of conceiving scientific reasoning. This model highlights a dialectic between construction and critique of claims in both scientific reasoning and practice. A “grasp” of scientific practice as such is instrumental to learning because informational content of scientific knowledge lies not only on the level of facts, but also on the levels of methods and values, and coordinating information across these levels is crucial for understanding. In contrast to prevailing constructivist ideas that highlight student authority to construct knowledge as scientists do, this model emphasizes the importance of knowing how to hold claims accountable. Thus, the ideal vision of students making their own sense of content is superceded by a more defensible ideal vision of students learning how to make scientific sense of content. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:404–423, 2008

Ford, M. (2008), Disciplinary authority and accountability in scientific practice and learning. Science Education, 92: 404–423. doi: 10.1002/sce.20263
Project-based science curricula can improve students' usable or meaningful understanding of the science content underlying a project. However, such curricula designed around “performances” wherein students design or make something do not always do this. We researched ways to design performance project-based science curricula (pPBSc) to better support the meaningful understanding of science content. Using existing curriculum design frameworks, we identified the learner's need to “create the demand” for the science content, anticipating how to use it in the performance, and to “apply” the science content, both being necessary to ensure meaningful understanding. Designing the pPBSc I, Bio we discovered how these guiding principles manifested as curriculum design challenges. We generalized from the design of I, Bio and related literature design approaches for addressing each challenge. Finally, we measured the extent to which a pPBSc incorporating these design approaches developed meaningful understanding. 652 middle grades students using I, Bio completed pre- and posttests on the science content behind the I, Bio performance. Our findings provide preliminary evidence that a pPBSc that incorporates these design approaches is consistent with gains in meaningful understanding. We discuss how the results of this work can be used to improve systematic experiments on instructional supports. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:525–551, 2010

Kanter, D. E. (2010), Doing the project and learning the content: Designing project-based science curricula for meaningful understanding. Science Education, 94: 525–551. doi: 10.1002/sce.20381
This research project explores the language practices that emerged as a teacher taught a lesson designed to promote science literacy development for traditionally underrepresented students. This ethnographic study of a Detroit, Michigan, school examined the teacher's use of science language and its influence on students' use of science language. Using sociolinguistic discourse analysis, two modes of classroom language were identified. First, the teacher used a hybrid method of language involving her explaining science ideas by using vernacular and scientific language. This parenthetical type of speech, which we describe as “double talk,” was also found in students. Second, students appropriated this same strategy for using science language in which they produced vernacular and scientific descriptions during explanations. The findings of this study are significant in their contribution to contemporary research about teaching and learning for minority students. These results implicate the need to teach science explicitly as a second language in urban classrooms. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:708–732, 2008

Brown, B. A. and Spang, E. (2008), Double talk: Synthesizing everyday and science language in the classroom. Science Education, 92: 708–732. doi: 10.1002/sce.20251
Sandoval, W. A. (2007), Education for thinking. Science Education, 91: 515–518. doi: 10.1002/sce.20210
Dolle, J. R. (2010), Education, science and truth. Science Education, 94: 573–575. doi: 10.1002/sce.20379
This study analyzes the short-term consequences of visitors' use of different types of exhibits (i.e., “exemplars of phenomena” and “analogy based”) together with the factors affecting visitors' understanding of and their evaluation of the use of such exhibits. One hundred and twenty five visitors (either alone or in groups) were observed during their interaction and interviewed immediately afterwards. Findings suggest that the type of exhibit constrains the nature of the understanding achieved. The use of analogical reasoning may lead to an intended causal explanation of an exhibit that is an exemplar of a phenomenon, but visitors often express misconceptions as a consequence of using this type of exhibit. Analogy-based exhibits are often not used as intended by the designer. This may be because visitors do not access the source domain intended; are unaware of the use of analogy per se (in particular, when the exhibit is of the subtype “only showing similarities between relationships”); only acquire fragmentary knowledge about the target; or fail to use analogical reasoning of which they were capable. Furthermore, exhibits related to everyday world situations are recognized to have an immediate educative value for visitors. Suggestions for enhancing the educative value of exhibits are proposed. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:967–987, 2007

Afonso, A. S. and Gilbert, J. K. (2007), Educational value of different types of exhibits in an interactive science and technology center. Science Education, 91: 967–987. doi: 10.1002/sce.20220
Educative mentoring is an idea developed by Feiman-Nemser [Feiman-Nemser, S. (1998). Teachers as teacher educators. European Journal of Teacher Education, 21(1), 63–74; (2001). Helping novices learn to teach: Lessons from an exemplary support teacher. Journal of Teacher Education, 52(1), 17–30] to reflect current conceptions of mentoring that emphasize novices learning from their practice with the assistance of a mentor teacher. Educative mentoring seeks to meet the immediate needs of novice teachers while also focusing on long-term goals for professional development. This paper discusses the meaning of educative mentoring, describes key behaviors of educative mentors, outlines important components for the professional development of mentors, and proposes areas for further research with a specific emphasis on the needs of beginning science teachers. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:1049–1071, 2010

Bradbury, L. U. (2010), Educative mentoring: Promoting reform-based science teaching through mentoring relationships. Science Education, 94: 1049–1071. doi: 10.1002/sce.20393
This study of teacher effectiveness and student achievement in science demonstrated that effective teachers positively impact student learning. A general linear mixed model was used to assess change in student scores on the Discovery Inquiry Test as a function of time, race, teacher effectiveness, gender, and impact of teacher effectiveness in prior years, over a 3-year period. Effective teaching was identified through a series of classroom observations using the Local Systemic Change Classroom Observation Protocol (Horizon Research, 1999). This study found that effective teaching increases student achievement and closes achievement gaps for all students. Findings from this study provide evidence that effective teaching each year may be the key to eliminating achievement gaps in science. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:371–383, 2007

Johnson, C. C., Kahle, J. B. and Fargo, J. D. (2007), Effective teaching results in increased science achievement for all students. Science Education, 91: 371–383. doi: 10.1002/sce.20195
This article examines teachers' perspectives on the challenges of using a science reform curriculum, as well as their learning in interaction with the curriculum and parallel professional development program. As case studies, I selected 4 veteran teachers of 2nd or 3rd grade, with varying science backgrounds (including 2 with essentially none). Capitalizing on the first activity of the monthly teacher meetings, wherein each teacher described an issue/challenge in using the curriculum, I analyzed how their conceptualization of issues changed over 5 points in time, 2 in the fall of 1 school year and 3 in the spring of the next. Exit interviews extend the time span under analysis to 32 months. Across this span, I examined the extent to which their thinking about the issues they raised reflected the problematic, in Dewey's sense of catalyst for fruitful taking up of the problem in ways supporting learning. Given the importance of understanding science as a way of knowing, I also analyzed their thinking vis-à-vis S. Carey and C. Smith's (1993) scientific knowledge-construction continuum from “knowledge unproblematic” to “knowledge problematic.” Analyses indicate that 3 of the 4 achieved fundamental advancements in their thinking, although of different forms and through different mechanisms of change. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:915–954, 2009

Metz, K. E. (2009), Elementary school teachers as “targets and agents of change”: Teachers' learning in interaction with reform science curriculum. Science Education, 93: 915–954. doi: 10.1002/sce.20309
Translating written curricular materials into rich, complex, learning environments is an undertheorized area in science education. This study examines two critical cases of teachers enacting a technology-rich curriculum focused on the development of complex reasoning around biodiversity for fifth graders. Two elements emerged that significantly impact teacher enactment—their conceptions of authenticity (authentic learning/authentic science) and their view of science (descriptive/inferential). The results suggest that disentangling the common conflation of these two elements supports a broader definition of inquiry science teaching that is more sensitive to context and individual teacher enactment. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:973–993, 2008

McDonald, S. and Songer, N. B. (2008), Enacting classroom inquiry: Theorizing teachers' conceptions of science teaching. Science Education, 92: 973–993. doi: 10.1002/sce.20293
This paper reports the synthesis of three case studies of students' engagement in inquiry-based learning activities in an upper-level undergraduate geology course. Details of how students engaged in scientific questions, gave priority to evidence, formulated explanations, evaluated explanations, and communicated and justified their findings are presented. Data for this study included classroom observations and fieldnotes of classroom practices, questionnaires, archival data (e.g., student work samples), and audiotapes and transcripts of interviews conducted with the student participants throughout the course. The findings suggest that although these students were able to successfully appropriate inquiry practices (e.g., giving priority to evidence), it was not without its challenges (e.g., perceived lack of guidance). A detailed discussion of the ways in which students were successful, and where they had challenges engaging in inquiry is presented, with the goal of helping direct practitioners and researchers to strategies whereby students' inquiry experiences can be improved. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:631–663, 2008

Apedoe, X. S. (2008), Engaging students in inquiry: Tales from an undergraduate geology laboratory-based course. Science Education, 92: 631–663. doi: 10.1002/sce.20254
Nathan, M. J. (2007), Enriching the brain: How to maximize every learner's potential. Science Education, 91: 341–344. doi: 10.1002/sce.20198
In this paper, we describe two central epistemological norms related to the importance of making investigations and to scientific language and its logic. These norms have been identified in empirical material consisting of 200 video-recorded lessons in three different science classes. With regard to the learning of science and socialization, we discuss and problematize these norms in the context of science learned at school and the nature of science. A methodological approach has been developed and used to analyze and identify the role that teachers' actions play in which epistemology students adopt in their meaning making and to highlight which view of science this usage represents. The approach consists of a combination of three methodologies: practical epistemology analyses, epistemological move analyses, and analyses of companion meanings. This combination produces communication analysis of companion meanings. The theory is based on pragmatism, sociocultural approaches to learning, and the later works of Wittgenstein. The companion meanings described in the empirical material indicate that if students learn the identified norms without any explicit problematization, they will only view science as rational and inductive in character and exclude alternative views from the practice. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:859–874, 2009

Lundqvist, E., Almqvist, J. and Östman, L. (2009), Epistemological norms and companion meanings in science classroom communication. Science Education, 93: 859–874. doi: 10.1002/sce.20334
Over the last few decades, environmental work has increased significantly. An important part of this has to do with attitudes. This research presents the design and validation of an environmental attitudes scale aimed at university students. Detailed information on development and validation of the scale is provided. Similarly, it presents the data derived from its application to a specimen group of students. The number of students involved in the whole research is 952. The results of the work show that a certain level of worry exists among the students regarding environmental problems, which is apparent in the need to increase environmental education and research. Some differences in environmental attitudes were also found between first year students and final year students and male and female students. These results lead us to insist on the importance of bringing about changes in the curriculum to increase environmentalism in the university. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci. Ed91:988–1009, 2007

Fernández-Manzanal, R., Rodríguez-Barreiro, L. and Carrasquer, J. (2007), Evaluation of environmental attitudes: Analysis and results of a scale applied to university students. Science Education, 91: 988–1009. doi: 10.1002/sce.20218
Tonso, K. L. (2008), Every other Thursday: Stories and strategies from successful women scientists. Science Education, 92: 185–187. doi: 10.1002/sce.20248
We describe a longitudinal study of a secondary education biology teacher at two moments in her career (1993–2002), determining the changes in her conceptions of the nature of science and its teaching and learning, and the factors that favored or hindered such changes. The changes were analyzed using cognitive maps, constructed on the basis of the Inventory of Teachers' Pedagogical & Scientific Beliefs (INPECIP) questionnaire, designed and validated by R. Porlán, A. Rivero, and R. Martín del Pozo (1997), and a semistructured interview. The results showed the process of change in conceptions to be complex and gradual, with different conceptions being out of phase with each other. During her first 4 years of teaching, until 1993, her conceptions of science teaching and learning began to evolve from a teacher and content-centered model to one that was more student centered. The catalyst of the change in her initial conceptions of teaching and learning was her becoming aware of the students' alternative ideas. Her empiricist conception of the nature of science, however, remained practically unaltered during these first 4 years. This conception began to shift slowly toward less dogmatic and more up-to-date positions as a consequence of her changing view of teaching-learning, and by 2002, there was again coherence between her scientific thinking and her ideas on science teaching and learning. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed, 91:461–491, 2007

Da-Silva, C., Mellado, V., Ruiz, C. and Porlán, R. (2007), Evolution of the conceptions of a secondary education biology teacher: Longitudinal analysis using cognitive maps. Science Education, 91: 461–491. doi: 10.1002/sce.20183
Discussing the teaching of evolution with concerned parents is a challenge to any science teacher. Using the medical education pedagogy of standardized individuals within the field of teacher education, this article addresses how preservice science teachers elected to verbally interact with standardized parents who questioned the teaching of evolution and proposed alternative curricula. Analysis of video recordings of the simulated interactions yielded three primary themes connected to teachers' understandings of what “counts” as science, teachers' justifications for teaching evolution, and teachers' explanations of the impact of teaching evolution. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:552–570, 2010

Dotger, S., Dotger, B. H. and Tillotson, J. (2010), Examining how preservice science teachers navigate simulated parent–teacher conversations on evolution and intelligent design. Science Education, 94: 552–570. doi: 10.1002/sce.20375
Women remain underrepresented in science professions. Studies have shown that students are more likely to select careers when they can identify a role model in that career path. Further research has shown that the success of this strategy is enhanced by the use of gender-matched role models. While prior work provides insights into the value of using role models, it does not explain the cognitive process involved in girls identifying role models from nontraditional careers for women. This feminist study addresses this gap by examining the cognitive process eighth-grade girls use in identifying a person as a science role model and comparing it to the process used by women scientists seeking to serve as possible science role models. Data revealed that the girls' process in identifying a role model involved personal connections and their initial image of a scientist led them to believe they could not have such a connection with a scientist. The initial views expressed by the women suggested they felt pressure to portray “perfect“ scientists in order to be a role model. A common understanding of a science role model was realized only after changes occurred in the girls' image of scientists and the scientists' image of a role model. The catalysts for these changes were the relationships that developed between girls and women scientists. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:688–707, 2008

Buck, G. A., Clark, V. L. P., Leslie-Pelecky, D., Lu, Y. and Cerda-Lizarraga, P. (2008), Examining the cognitive processes used by adolescent girls and women scientists in identifying science role models: A feminist approach. Science Education, 92: 688–707. doi: 10.1002/sce.20257
Given concerns with the low levels of explanation in science education classrooms, it has been suggested that text may supply a higher percentage of explanatory discourse than do classroom teachers. However, given that textbooks have been shown to differ little from teacher discourse in percentages of explanation, the present study sought to examine explanatory aspects of highly recommended trade books teachers might use in their science instruction. To that end, we examined a total of 43 trade books, 24 life science and 19 physical science, 7182 clauses in all, for the presence of explanation. We found significantly higher percentages (32.87) of explanatory clauses in physical science trade books than in life science (23.34) trade books. This trend was particularly pronounced in the physical science trade books targeted for the primary-grade audience. Our results suggest that trade books may represent an option for infusing more focus on explanation in the science classroom. However, we also caution that teacher background may limit the effectiveness of this larger presence of explanation. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:587–610, 2009

Smolkin, L. B., McTigue, E. M., Donovan, C. A. and Coleman, J. M. (2009), Explanation in science trade books recommended for use with elementary students. Science Education, 93: 587–610. doi: 10.1002/sce.20313
Previous research has established a close link between students' conceptions of learning and approaches to learning. Until recently, only a few quantitative studies have investigated the relationship between high school students' conceptions of learning science and the approaches they adopt to learning science. This study sought to address this gap in the literature by assessing these possible relationships empirically through the development of two questionnaires: The Conceptions of Learning Science (COLS) questionnaire and the Approaches to Learning Science (ALS) questionnaire. Four hundred and seventy-four Taiwanese high school students were administered the COLS questionnaire and the ALS questionnaire. Results were entered into a structural equation model to elicit structural relations between students' conceptions of and their approaches to learning science. Overall, findings revealed that students holding constructivist conceptions of learning science tended to employ deep approaches to learning science. Conceptions of learning science such as “testing” and “calculate and practice” were also found to have effects on the surface approaches to learning science; the conceptions of learning science as “applying” and “understanding and seeing in a new way” had noticeable effects on deep approaches to learning science. This study employed quantitative methods to confirm further the structural relations existing between conceptions of learning science and the motives and strategies employed in learning science. Implications for implementing the study's findings into the context of the real-world classroom are discussed. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed, 92:191–220, 2008.

Lee, M.-H., Johanson, R. E. and Tsai, C.-C. (2008), Exploring Taiwanese high school students' conceptions of and approaches to learning science through a structural equation modeling analysis. Science Education, 92: 191–220. doi: 10.1002/sce.20245
This study examines the development and ongoing activities of a collaboration between an urban elementary school and a nearby aquarium. Although the benefits of such collaborations in support of science education are touted by numerous national organizations, the pathway to creating a successful relationship between these two different institutions, with inherently different cultures, is less well documented. Using the theoretical framework of communities of practice (E. Wenger, 1998), a better understanding of the challenges and successes of this collaboration is presented. In particular, the analysis suggests that participant engagement in both communities (school and aquarium) led to the development of an overlap in these communities of practice. This resulted when common forms of mutual engagement, joint enterprise, and shared repertoire emerged over the course of the project. Consistent with Wenger's framework, boundary objects and brokers could be identified that helped secure such overlap in this particular case. Implications of this theoretical perspective for facilitating the development of such institutional collaborations are also discussed. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:95–121, 2010

Kisiel, J. F. (2010), Exploring a school–aquarium collaboration: An intersection of communities of practice. Science Education, 94: 95–121. doi: 10.1002/sce.20350
We describe a study of programs to deepen families' scientific inquiry practices in a science museum setting. The programs incorporated research-based learning principles from formal and informal educational environments. In a randomized experimental design, two versions of the programs, called inquiry games, were compared to two control conditions. Inquiry behaviors were videotaped and compared at pretest and posttest exhibits. Family members were also interviewed about their perceptions and use of the inquiry games. Results indicated that visitors who learned the inquiry games improved their inquiry more than those who did not. Effect sizes ranged from 0.3σ to 0.7σ, depending on the assessment measure. Visitors who learned the collaborative inquiry game showed even more improvement than those who learned the individualized game, spending more time investigating the posttest exhibit, making more frequent and more abstract interpretations of their experiments, building more collaborative explanations, and engaging in more coherent inquiry investigations than controls. Qualitative analysis suggested that the collaborative inquiry game was superior because it required all family members to participate, work together, and explicitly articulate their interpretations. Visitors in all conditions enjoyed their experience, varied in what they liked and disliked, and reported applying what they had learned at new exhibits. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:710–742, 2010

Gutwill, J. P. and Allen, S. (2010), Facilitating family group inquiry at science museum exhibits. Science Education, 94: 710–742. doi: 10.1002/sce.20387
This paper explores both the obstacles and the possibilities for students developing identities associated with science by engaging in solidarity-building classroom interactions. Data come from ethnographic research conducted in a diverse eighth-grade urban magnet school classroom in which the teacher taught out of field for part of the year. Contrary to expectations, more students participated and reported enjoying science when the teacher was out of field. Analysis of classroom interactions indicated that while in field, the teacher primarily engaged in “front stage” performances that hid her struggles with the material and accentuated students' views of science as an elite status group. The types of solidarity that developed among students often did not involve science language and sometimes involved students rejecting peers' claims to membership. However, when out of field, the teacher allowed students into her “backstage,” where her struggles and learning processes were more explicit. These practices lessened the social distance between teacher and students, and reduced the risks of using science language, thereby encouraging solidarity and group membership. This study provides insights into some of the ways that teachers, particularly those in urban settings characterized by diversity, might be more successful at facilitating identity formation and learning in science. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:201–221, 2007

Olitsky, S. (2007), Facilitating identity formation, group membership, and learning in science classrooms: What can be learned from out-of-field teaching in an urban school?. Science Education, 91: 201–221. doi: 10.1002/sce.20182
In this paper, we examine the interactional ways that families make meaning from biological exhibits during a visit to an interactive science center. To understand the museum visits from the perspectives of the families, we use ethnographic and discourse analytic methods, including pre- and postvisit interviews, videotaped observations of the museum visits, and coding and analysis of utterances from naturally occurring conversations. We employ an Everyday Expertise framework to understand how families use ideas and materials to make meaning from the scientific content presented in exhibits. We argue that individual and cognitive aspects of learning are fundamentally connected to the social and cultural aspects of learning; therefore, we analyze the intertwining role of individual cognitive resources, situated activities, and cultural toolkit resources that support learning interactions and processes. Findings indicate how families use a variety of knowledge types (epistemic resources) to make sense of exhibit content, how they make sense of biological content by transferring cultural epistemic resources from prior experiences, and how families use two types of scientific epistemic resources—biological facts and perceptual descriptions—as the primary means to make sense of biological exhibits. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:478–505, 2010

Zimmerman, H. T., Reeve, S. and Bell, P. (2010), Family sense-making practices in science center conversations. Science Education, 94: 478–505. doi: 10.1002/sce.20374
The Simpson–Troost Attitude Questionnaire (STAQ) was developed as part of a study to assess adolescent commitment to and achievement in science. For this psychometric reappraisal of the 57-item STAQ, data were analyzed from a convenience sample of 1,754 secondary students. Confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses were applied, and results suggested that the STAQ can be shortened from 57 to 22 items spanning five revised dimensions. These five dimensions were arranged into an exploratory structural equation model, which showed some grade and gender differences and strong associations among classroom environment, self-directed effort, and science affect. Findings raise the potential for teacher professional development to improve science classroom activities, and influence student self-directed effort and science affect. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:1076–1095, 2008

Owen, S. V., Toepperwein, M. A., Marshall, C. E., Lichtenstein, M. J., Blalock, C. L., Liu, Y., Pruski, L. A. and Grimes, K. (2008), Finding pearls: Psychometric reevaluation of the Simpson–Troost Attitude Questionnaire (STAQ). Science Education, 92: 1076–1095. doi: 10.1002/sce.20296
This article reports on a research study investigating the career decision-making processes of urban science teachers as one element central to understanding the high rates of attrition in the field. Using a longitudinal, prospective, context- and subject-specific approach, this study followed the career decisions of case study teachers over a period of 12 months. All eight of the case study teachers envisioned themselves eventually moving out of classroom teaching positions. Each used an ongoing and active process of decision making to evaluate their professional direction and sought confirmation of their contribution to the field before moving into new roles and responsibilities. This article describes the experiences of several teachers who exemplify these decision-making processes. These cases suggest potential benefits for differentiated roles, professional mentoring, and recognition and feedback from professional communities. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:1096–1121, 2009

Rinke, C. R. (2009), Finding their way on: Career decision-making processes of urban science teachers. Science Education, 93: 1096–1121. doi: 10.1002/sce.20339
This case study describes a teacher's development of and creativity in manipulating physical models in an astronomy course for in-service science teachers of K-8. Specifically, she organized a data table from several charts of numbers, constructed a moon-ball model in addition to a 2-D model, and created a hula hoop model as a concrete realization of her mental model. Examination of the transformation and construction processes revealed how she revised existing models and added new elements. These reconstruction experiences afforded her with a higher level of comprehension and self-awareness of her mental models. Three of the teacher's actions contributed to her increased understanding and deployment of the models: she enhanced her autonomy by changing the given models and solving problems she was interested in; she communicated with her partners and shared her knowledge by materializing her models; and she constructed new models on the basis of her experience. This case study shows that the transformation process, especially a cascade of small steps with the emergence of a more dramatic departure, is a key to generating scientific knowledge. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:948–966, 2007

Shen, J. and Confrey, J. (2007), From conceptual change to transformative modeling: A case study of an elementary teacher in learning astronomy. Science Education, 91: 948–966. doi: 10.1002/sce.20224
The focus of this research was to understand how a program for women in science, mathematics, and engineering (SM&E) at college level in the southeastern United States functioned to influence women's decision making in terms of participation in these fields. By employing Lave and Wenger's theory of situated learning, we explored this program through two and a half academic years. We utilized a qualitative–quantitative mixed approach in our methodology. For the case study aspect, we focused on the cases of three women participating in the support program via participant observations and in-depth interviews. For a more general description, we developed a questionnaire and augmented this with interviews with a broad spectrum of students. Our findings illustrated that the program demonstrated a great potential to aid the traditionally marginalized to move from marginality to legitimate participation in the communities of science. The program functioned successfully in four ways, each interwoven with the others. One implication of these findings is that such programs should include a multitude of events and opportunities for cognitive, social, and emotional support. Being not tall orders financially, such programs may be considered as effective interventions in both national and international settings, where women are in disadvantaged status. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:33–64, 2008

Kahveci, A., Southerland, S. A. and Gilmer, P. J. (2008), From marginality to legitimate peripherality: Understanding the essential functions of a women's program. Science Education, 92: 33–64. doi: 10.1002/sce.20234
Identity formation is a critical dimension of how and why students engage in science to varying degrees. In this paper, we use the lens of identity formation, and in particular identities in practice, to make sense of how and why Melanie, over the course of sixth grade, transformed from a marginalized member of the science class with a failing grade to a highly valued member of the sixth-grade science community with a perfect score of a 100% for the sixth-grade exit project. Our findings reveal that the different figured worlds of the science classroom, such as whole class, small group work, and individual work, offered Melanie different affordances for identity formation that were built upon across such spaces, in both productive and unproductive ways. Our findings also take up the kinds of critical roles that members of her classroom community, in particular teacher and peers, play in supporting and constraining such a transformation. We discuss the implications identity formation has for understanding issues of gender equity and science learning. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:567–590, 2008

Tan, E. and Barton, A. C. (2008), From peripheral to central, the story of Melanie's metamorphosis in an urban middle school science class. Science Education, 92: 567–590. doi: 10.1002/sce.20253
Informed by literature on childhood expertise in high-interest topics and parent–child conversation in museum settings, this study explored how children's level of dinosaur expertise influences family learning opportunities in a natural history museum. Interviews identified children with high and low dinosaur knowledge and assigned them to expert and novice groups. Parent surveys revealed that expert children were more likely to have home environments where family members shared interests in dinosaurs and provided a variety of dinosaur learning resources. Analysis of family conversations demonstrated that parents with novice children more actively engaged them in learning conversations than parents with expert children. The implications of this shift in parental engagement are considered in terms of interest and knowledge development in informal settings, highlighting how islands of expertise might facilitate and in some cases hinder learning through shared family activity. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:783–804, 2007

Palmquist, S. and Crowley, K. (2007), From teachers to testers: How parents talk to novice and expert children in a natural history museum. Science Education, 91: 783–804. doi: 10.1002/sce.20215
This study sought to identify prominent features of the nature of science (NOS) embedded in authentic scientific inquiry. Thirteen well-established scientists from different parts of the world, working in experimental or theoretical research, in both traditional fields such as astrophysics and rapidly growing research fields such as molecular biology, completed an open-ended questionnaire about the NOS and participated in in-depth interviews. The descriptions of their practices provide a somewhat striking contrast to the image of science usually portrayed in science curricula and textbooks. These accounts of authentic scientific practice have considerable potential for development into interesting cases as teaching resources to enhance and enrich students' understanding of NOS and for the design of more effective laboratory work and field experience. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:109–130, 2009

Wong, S. L. and Hodson, D. (2009), From the horse's mouth: What scientists say about scientific investigation and scientific knowledge. Science Education, 93: 109–130. doi: 10.1002/sce.20290
Challenged by a National Science Foundation–funded conference, 2020 Vision: The Next Generation of STEM Learning Research, in which participants were asked to recognize science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) learning as lifelong, life-wide, and life-deep, we draw upon 20 years of research across the lifespan to propose a new way of thinking about and investigating the topic. We propose Fullness of Life (or Total Life) as the minimal unit of analysis that allows people generally and researchers specifically to make sense of cognition. This move reverses traditional perspectives: Rather than understanding life from the position of STEM activities, we understand STEM learning from the perspective of life taken as a whole. We propose three attendant concepts that do not focus on stable knowledge content but on (a) the ability to mobilize and augment knowledge (knowledgeability), (b) the necessity to develop the disposition of the débrouillard/e and bricoleur, and (c) the necessity to conceive knowledgeability as collective property, outcome of collective praxis. We conclude by commenting on five dimensions suggested as need requirements for implementing a 2020 vision for STEM learning research. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:1027–1048, 2010

Roth, W.-M. and Eijck, M. V. (2010), Fullness of life as minimal unit: Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) learning across the life span. Science Education, 94: 1027–1048. doi: 10.1002/sce.20401
The attrition of females studying physics after high school is a growing concern to the science education community. Most undergraduate science programs require introductory physics coursework. Thus, success in introductory physics is usually necessary for students to progress to higher levels of science study. Success also influences attitudes; if females are well prepared, feel confident, and do well in introductory physics, they may be inclined to study physics further. This quantitative study using a hierarchical linear model focused on determining factors from high school physics preparation (content, pedagogy, and assessment) and the affective domain that predicted female and male performance in introductory university physics. The data analyzed came from 1973 introductory university physics surveys that included variables used as controls for student demographic and academic background characteristics. The results highlight high school physics and affective experiences that differentially predicted female and male performance. These experiences include learning requirements, long-written problems, cumulative tests/quizzes, father's encouragement, and family's belief that science leads to a better career. There were also factors that had a similar effect on female and male performance among which mathematics preparation was the overall strongest predictor of university physics performance. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:847–876, 2007

Hazari, Z., Tai, R. H. and Sadler, P. M. (2007), Gender differences in introductory university physics performance: The influence of high school physics preparation and affective factors. Science Education, 91: 847–876. doi: 10.1002/sce.20223
This research examined the nature of parent–child conversations at an informal science education center housed in an active gravitational-wave observatory. Each of 20 parent–child dyads explored an interactive exhibit hall privately, without the distraction of other visitors. Parents employed a variety of strategies to support their children's understanding of unfamiliar topics, including describing evidence, giving direction, providing explanation, making connections, and eliciting predictions. Parents' education was associated with both the amount of time dyads spent exploring exhibits and the proportion of exhibits at which parents made connections to prior experiences. Parents' attitudes toward science were likewise associated with the proportion of exhibits visited. Parent–child dyads spent more time at exhibits that encouraged Active Prolonged Engagement (APE). Parents elicited predictions more often at APE exhibits, and children described evidence and gave direction more often at APE exhibits. Thus, both participant characteristics and exhibit qualities were found to contribute to parent–child interactions in an informal science setting. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:846–858, 2009

Szechter, L. E. and Carey, E. J. (2009), Gravitating toward science: Parent–child interactions at a gravitational-wave observatory. Science Education, 93: 846–858. doi: 10.1002/sce.20333
In this article, the Greek primary school teachers' understanding of three current environmental issues (acid rain, the ozone layer depletion, and the greenhouse effect) as well as the emerging images of nature were examined. The study revealed that teachers held several environmental knowledge gaps and misconceptions about the three phenomena. Using the media as major environmental information sources, in which environmental issues are constructed as environmental risks, teachers are being environmentally educated in lay and not in scientific terms. Moreover, the image of nature emerging from their ideas about the three environmental issues is that of the romantic archetype, which prevails in postindustrial societies. Such a view, though, gives a conceptualization of nature as balance, under which the greenhouse effect and acid rain are seen as exclusively human-induced “disturbances.” © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:244–259, 2007

Michail, S., Stamou, A. G. and Stamou, G. P. (2007), Greek primary school teachers' understanding of current environmental issues: An exploration of their environmental knowledge and images of nature. Science Education, 91: 244–259. doi: 10.1002/sce.20185
Curriculum analysis, modification, and enactment are core components of teacher practice. Beginning teachers rely heavily on curriculum materials that are often of poor quality to guide their practice. As a result, we argue that preservice teachers need to learn how to use curriculum materials for effective teaching. To address this concern, the authors conducted a study in which three teacher educators taught elementary science methods courses incorporating a major focus on curriculum analysis and modification based on Project 2061 Instructional Analysis Criteria. Analysis of pre–post assessments, classroom artifacts, classroom dialogue, and postcourse interviews indicated that preservice teachers accurately applied and appropriated a modest set of criteria whose intended meanings most closely matched their own understandings, were most closely aligned with their own goals and criteria, or were made accessible through systematic use and attention within the methods sections. However, many did not find the materials analysis criteria useful or comprehensible and based their curricular decisions on their own criteria. Furthermore, some preservice teachers resisted engaging in these practices that may have seemed too analytical, inauthentic, and destabilizing. These findings pointed us toward a revised theoretical framework and new approaches to better support preservice teachers' effective participation with curriculum materials. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:345–377, 2008

Schwarz, C. V., Gunckel, K. L., Smith, E. L., Covitt, B. A., Bae, M., Enfield, M. and Tsurusaki, B. K. (2008), Helping elementary preservice teachers learn to use curriculum materials for effective science teaching. Science Education, 92: 345–377. doi: 10.1002/sce.20243
Previous literature has documented how teachers perceive both advantages and disadvantages associated with standards-based reform. These teacher perceptions may be connected to classroom practices in terms of the extent to which standards are utilized by individual teachers. The purpose of this study was to identify how secondary science teachers characterize state science standards, modify their curricula on the basis of standards, and view the impacts of standards on students and teachers in their schools. Twenty-two science teachers from five purposefully selected school districts were interviewed using a protocol targeting attitudes toward standards and accountability, ways teachers use standards to develop and modify curricula, impacts of standards on students and teachers, and utilization of standards-based resources and professional development. An inductive approach was used to analyze data and produced both common views of science standards held by many teachers and profiles that characterize subgroups of teachers. Participants described both positive and negative aspects of standards-based accountability, and roughly half of the teachers described modifying their curricula according to standards. Teachers were categorized into six different profiles: negative perspectives, game of testing, already doing it, part of the cycle, reality of teaching, and useful tools. Suggestions for different approaches to professional development are elaborated for teachers of these various profiles. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:1050–1075, 2009

Donnelly, L. A. and Sadler, T. D. (2009), High school science teachers' views of standards and accountability. Science Education, 93: 1050–1075. doi: 10.1002/sce.20347
Kafai, Y. B. (2008), How computer games help children learn. Science Education, 92: 378–381. doi: 10.1002/sce.20261
The cause of the seasons is often associated with a very particular alternative conception: That the earth's orbit around the sun is highly elongated, and the differences in distance result in variations in temperature. It has been suggested that the standard diagrams used to depict the earth's orbit may be in some way responsible for the initial appearance and overall maintenance of this incorrect conceptualization; the elongated shape of the orbit is thought of as a conceptualization cue that invites a fairly predictable way of reasoning. To test whether that is indeed the case, six variants of diagrams depicting differently shaped earth orbits around the sun were presented to 652 ninth-grade students in the United States. From responses to a written assessment, students' ideas about what caused the seasons were identified and analyzed. Elongation of orbit did not appear to have an effect, and there was no reinforcement effect for students who initially believed in an elongated orbit. Additional analyses show instead that other features in the diagrams can instead be more influential as conceptualization cues, such as shading or overlapping shapes, but these cues' influence on student reasoning depend on which other cues accompany them. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:985–1007, 2010

Lee, V. R. (2010), How different variants of orbit diagrams influence student explanations of the seasons. Science Education, 94: 985–1007. doi: 10.1002/sce.20403
The article grapples with the question of how much curriculum change is appropriate in a given context and in a given time frame. How can a balance be struck between stagnation, on the one hand, and the promotion of unrealistic innovation on the other? In answer to this dilemma, the concept of a zone of feasible innovation (ZFI) is proposed and explored, drawing on the literature of school development, teacher professional development, and of developmental psychology, the work of Vygotsky in particular. A series of procedures are suggested to help define the nature and scope of a ZFI in any given situation. Finally, vignettes from case studies of innovation in science education are evoked to provide real-life counterpoints to the theoretical constructs of the literature. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed, 91:439–460, 2007

Rogan, J. M. (2007), How much curriculum change is appropriate? Defining a zone of feasible innovation. Science Education, 91: 439–460. doi: 10.1002/sce.20192
We often knowingly teach false science. Such a practice conflicts with a prima facie pedagogical value placed on teaching only what is true. I argue that only a partial dissolution of the conflict is possible: the proper aim of instruction in science is not to provide an armory of facts about what things the world contains, how they interact, and so on, but rather to contribute to an understanding of how science as a human endeavor works and what sorts of facts about the world science aims to provide. Such an aim legislates for an increased prominence of history and philosophy in even secondary science education. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:526–542, 2008

Slater, M. H. (2008), How to justify teaching false science. Science Education, 92: 526–542. doi: 10.1002/sce.20269
Sadler, T. D. (2007), Dr. Golem: How to think about medicine. Science Education, 91: 339–341. doi: 10.1002/sce.20199
There is evidence that science teachers give naive responses to direct questions about the nature of science. However, there is also evidence that such responses underpredict the more sophisticated knowledge that teachers may use in classroom situations. The purpose of this study was to characterize the informal ideas used by teachers in situations directly relevant to their teaching of science. The sample comprised 50 Mexican primary school teachers. Three areas of informal expertise were addressed: scientists and their work; scientific inquiry; and data measurement. The teachers' thinking was explored through questionnaires and semistructured interviews using pedagogically relevant contexts. The database was analyzed first to describe ideas shared by teachers and second to identify any recurrent themes and patterns among responses. Teachers' responses were characterized around four areas of discourse: demarcation of science; scientific procedures; approaches to reliable knowledge; and professional and institutional features of science. The teachers' responses were diverse in their contextualization, that is, they incorporated specific background and contextual details to a different extent. Most responses showed limited or intermediate contextualization across all four areas of discourse, though some more sophisticated responses were noted. A general framework was developed to characterize this diversity in teachers' responses. This paper concludes with a discussion of the extent to which this sample of teachers was equipped to discuss the nature of science in pedagogical contexts and, given their starting points, how they might be supported in developing their expertise in doing this. Implications for teacher education and curriculum development are presented. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:282–307, 2010

Guerra-Ramos, M. T., Ryder, J. and Leach, J. (2010), Ideas about the nature of science in pedagogically relevant contexts: Insights from a situated perspective of primary teachers' knowledge. Science Education, 94: 282–307. doi: 10.1002/sce.20361
Elementary school children are capable of reproducing sophisticated science process skills such as observing, designing experiments, collecting data, and evaluating evidence. An understanding of the nature of scientific knowledge requires more than teaching and learning the performance of these skills. It also requires an appreciation of how these actions lead to knowledge generation and shape its durable and tentative nature. Our understanding of activities that support the teaching and learning of the nature of scientific knowledge is still growing. This study compares how scientific knowledge is generated in science laboratories and in elementary school classrooms. Discourse analysis, conducted through an activity theoretical perspective, of conversations between biomedical researchers revealed that nearly every aspect of discussions among scientists concerned uncertainty—establishing what was known with confidence and what remained unresolved. Analysis of conversations between teachers and students in an urban elementary school showed that a similar pattern of identifying and resolving uncertainty was evident when students were conducting independent investigations. All participants identified new knowledge through processes of reflexivity concerned with what was observed, conducted, and interpreted in investigations. Implications for science education are discussed. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:308–335, 2010

Kirch, S. A. (2010), Identifying and resolving uncertainty as a mediated action in science: A comparative analysis of the cultural tools used by scientists and elementary science students at work. Science Education, 94: 308–335. doi: 10.1002/sce.20362
Reich, C. (2010), Identity and the museum visitor experience. Science Education, 94: 762–764. doi: 10.1002/sce.20383
Concepts and findings from research on identity development are employed to better understand why current science teacher preparation programs are failing to prepare teachers who are able and choose to implement the vision for science education articulated in professional standards. Identity theory is used as a theoretical lens to make sense of and better address some of the unique challenges of becoming a reform-minded science teacher, a professional identity that does not reflect the common norm in the profession; these challenges include the emotional risk and possible need for “repair work,” lack of familiarity with and buy-in into complex practices of inquiry, and the need for opportunities to participate in competent practice and have this participation acknowledged. Two basic design principles for science teacher preparation are identified as a result of this analysis: (a) the need to create safe places and scaffolded ways for beginning science teachers to try on and develop their identities as reform-minded science teachers, which may include capitalizing on the unique opportunities of practice teaching in out-of-school contexts; and (b) the need to offer opportunities to be recognized, by self and others, as reform-minded teachers through ongoing, structured, and supported reflection. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:822–839, 2007

Luehmann, A. L. (2007), Identity development as a lens to science teacher preparation. Science Education, 91: 822–839. doi: 10.1002/sce.20209
Two elementary certified middle school science teachers are studied for changes in practical knowledge supporting the implementation of kit-based inquiry as part of a schoolwide reform effort. Emphasis is placed on studying how these two pilot teachers enact guided inquiry within their unique pedagogical and curricular interests, and what adaptations they make in their use of Science and Technology for Children™ and Science and Technology Concepts for Middle School™ curriculum. Case study results support the notion that reform is complex and personal, and teachers as professionals need collective and individual support in the classroom as they make incremental changes in practice toward becoming inquiry-oriented teachers. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:492–513, 2007

Jones, M. T. and Eick, C. J. (2007), Implementing inquiry kit curriculum: Obstacles, adaptations, and practical knowledge development in two middle school science teachers. Science Education, 91: 492–513. doi: 10.1002/sce.20197
Farber, P. (2009), In pursuit of the gene: From Darwin to DNA. Science Education, 93: 185–186. doi: 10.1002/sce.20317
Bang, M. (2009), Indigenous knowledge and education: Sites of struggle, strength, and survivance. Science Education, 93: 958–959. doi: 10.1002/sce.20351
Westhoff, L. M. (2007), Inquiry and education: John Dewey and the quest for democracy. Science Education, 91: 344–345. doi: 10.1002/sce.20200
This study examines the historical conditions that fostered significant reform in science education. To understand these conditions, we employ a framework drawn from the new institutionalism in organization theory to study the founding and early development of the Exploratorium—a prominent science center that greatly impacted the field of science education. We examine how the Exploratorium employed institutional resources that were available in its environment to develop a new type of organization: an interactive science center. Our findings reveal that the Exploratorium was shaped by the state, which includes all levels of government; the mass media; and the professions, including science, education, and museums. In addition, we explore the pivotal role an individual, Frank Oppenheimer, played in leveraging the institutional environment in which an organization was developing. Our findings suggest that (a) reform in science education may be more profoundly advanced by the development of a new type of organization than by “tinkering” with an existing type of organization such as schools, and (b) that interactive science centers should exercise caution in navigating the changing seas of science education by maintaining their core mission and collaborating with new types of organizations that arise in response to the changing environment. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93: 269–292, 2009

Ogawa, R. T., Loomis, M. and Crain, R. (2009), Institutional history of an interactive science center: The founding and development of the Exploratorium. Science Education, 93: 269–292. doi: 10.1002/sce.20299
Bouillion, L. M. (2007), Integrating education systems for successful reform in diverse contexts. Science Education, 91: 1033–1037. doi: 10.1002/sce.20237
Duschl, R., Erduran, S., Grandy, R. and Rudolph, J. (2008), Introduction to special issue: Science Studies and Science Education. Science Education, 92: 385–388. doi: 10.1002/sce.20271
Implementation of science curriculum materials has been a fundamental challenge in science education for decades. Policy researchers have argued that alignment of standards, curriculum, and assessment are the key to supporting implementation. This paper focuses on teachers' perceptions of curricular alignment and on curriculum implementation using empirical data from a statewide systemic inquiry science reform effort targeting students from kindergarten to eighth grade. We find that the success of alignment policies depends on teachers' construal of the relationship between standards and curriculum materials and on allocation of time for planning at the school level. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:656–677, 2009

Penuel, W., Fishman, B. J., Gallagher, L. P., Korbak, C. and Lopez-Prado, B. (2009), Is alignment enough? Investigating the effects of state policies and professional development on science curriculum implementation. Science Education, 93: 656–677. doi: 10.1002/sce.20321
In this quantitative study, we compare the efficacy of Level 2, guided inquiry–based instruction to more traditional, verification laboratory instruction in supporting student performance on a standardized measure of knowledge of content, procedure, and nature of science. Our sample included 1,700 students placed in the classrooms of 12 middle school and 12 high school science teachers. The instruction for both groups included a week long, laboratory-based, forensics unit. Students were given pre-, post-, and delayed posttests, the results of which were analyzed through a Hierarchical Linear Model (HLM) using students' scores, teacher, level of school, Reformed Teaching Observation Protocol (RTOP) scores, and school socioeconomic status. Overall, compared to students in traditional sections, students who participated in an inquiry-based laboratory unit showed significantly higher posttest scores; had the higher scores, more growth, and long-term retention at both the high school and middle school levels, if their teacher had stronger implementation of inquiry methods (as measured by RTOP scores); and tended to have better outcomes than those who learned through traditional methods, regardless of level of poverty in the school. Our findings suggest that Level 2 inquiry can be an effective teaching approach to support student learning as measured through standardized assessments. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:577–616, 2010

Blanchard, M. R., Southerland, S. A., Osborne, J. W., Sampson, V. D., Annetta, L. A. and Granger, E. M. (2010), Is inquiry possible in light of accountability?: A quantitative comparison of the relative effectiveness of guided inquiry and verification laboratory instruction. Science Education, 94: 577–616. doi: 10.1002/sce.20390
This study investigated the relationship between readability of 73 text-only multiple-choice questions from Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2003 and performance of two groups of South African learners: those with limited English-language proficiency (learners attending African schools) and those with better English-language proficiency (learners attending non-African schools). Both groups were exposed to the same intended curriculum, but differed with respect to the quality of teaching they received, the availability of resources, and the level of functionality of their schools. Learners from non-African schools performed significantly better than learners from African schools. Three readability factors (sentence complexity, unfamiliar words, and long words) were analyzed. High sentence complexity resulted in random guessing in non-African schools, and favoring an incorrect answer in African schools. Some TIMSS items have complex wording, with numerous prepositional phrases and clauses, and unclear questions. Recommendations for maximum readability and comprehensibility were not met, and these items are therefore invalid for learners with limited English-language proficiency. Learners employ a range of strategies in attempting to answer questions that they do not understand. Overall, though, poor readability of TIMSS items does not fully account for South African learners' poor performance in TIMSS. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci. Ed91:906–925. 2007

Dempster, E. R. and Reddy, V. (2007), Item readability and science achievement in TIMSS 2003 in South Africa. Science Education, 91: 906–925. doi: 10.1002/sce.20225
Teaching literacy in inquiry-based science-teaching settings has recently become a focus of research in science education. Because professional scientists' uses of reading, writing, and speaking are foundational to their work, as well as to nonscientists' comprehension of it , it follows that literacy practices should also be central to science teaching. Science as a vehicle through which to develop literacy skills is an attractive alternative that some teachers choose in order to include science in their curriculum. In this paper, we present descriptions of three elementary teachers' efforts to teach literacy practices through science. Our descriptions, through which we illustrate a range of ways in which teachers link science and literacy instruction, are grounded in these teachers' accounts and our observations of their teaching. We end with a comparison of these teachers' approaches, and draw from this analysis considerations for implementing literacy instruction in elementary science education. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93: 189–217, 2009

Howes, E. V., Lim, M. and Campos, J. (2009), Journeys into inquiry-based elementary science: Literacy practices, questioning, and empirical study. Science Education, 93: 189–217. doi: 10.1002/sce.20297
The debate on the status of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) in science curricula is currently centered on a juxtaposition of two incompatible frameworks: multiculturalism and universalism. The aim of this paper is to establish a framework that overcomes this opposition between multiculturalism and universalism in science education, so that they become but one-sided expressions of an integrated unit. To be able to do so, we abandon the concept of “truth.” Instead, we adopt a contemporary epistemology that (a) entails both the cultural and material aspects of human, intersubjective reality; (b) concerns the usefulness of knowledge; and (c) highlights the dynamic, heterogeneous, and plural nature of products of human being and understanding. Drawing on narratives of scientists and aboriginal people explaining a comparable natural phenomenon (a salmon run), we show that both TEK and scientific knowledge, though simultaneously available, are incommensurable and irreducible to each other, as are the different processes of knowledge construction/evolution inherent to the constituting artifacts. Drawing on social studies of science, we point out that the transcendent nature of scientific knowledge implies absence of local heterogeneity, dynamic, and plurality making it useless in local contexts other than itself. We discuss the educational implications of this recalibration. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed, 91:926–947, 2007

Eijck, M. V. and Roth, W.-M. (2007), Keeping the local local: Recalibrating the status of science and traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) in education. Science Education, 91: 926–947. doi: 10.1002/sce.20227
Apprenticeship and the associated support mechanism of scaffolding have received considerable interest by educational researchers as ways of inducting students into science. Most studies treat scaffolding as a one-way process, where the expert supports the development of the novice. However, if social processes generally and conversations specifically are dialogical in nature then we would expect to observe two-way processes. The purpose of this paper is to report the results of an ethnographic study of high school students' internships in a scientific laboratory. Data were collected through observation, fieldnotes, and videotaping. Drawing on discursive psychology and conversation analysis, we find that laboratory technicians and students draw on different forms of discursive strategies to articulate knowledgeability while transacting with each other. We put forth the notion of emergent expertise to describe new forms of expertise that are not a property of individuals but rather the product of collective transactions. Our study illustrates the importance of opportunities generated in the internship for both old-timers and newcomers to bring about knowledgeability. This study implies a rethinking of the role of the expert and the notion of scaffolding, which puts more emphasis on the transactional process rather than on learners as recipients. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:1–25, 2009

Hsu, P.-L. and Roth, W.-M. (2009), Lab technicians and high school student interns—Who is scaffolding whom?: On forms of emergent expertise. Science Education, 93: 1–25. doi: 10.1002/sce.20289
Don Crofford, G. (2008), Laws of men and laws of nature: The history of scientific expert testimony in England and America. Science Education, 92: 761–763. doi: 10.1002/sce.20288
To explore the ways in which teacher-guided and student-centered instructional approaches influence students' conceptual understanding of seasonal change, we designed a technology-enhanced learning (TEL) course to compare, by means of concept maps, the learning outcome of students in two groups: a teacher-guided (TG) class (with whole-class presentations) and a student-centered (SC) class (with individual online learning). The participants were two classes of second-year senior high school students in Taiwan. Overall, the results showed that most students developed a deep and accessible understanding of the reasons for the seasons after undergoing experiences provided by the TEL course. More importantly, it was found that, in this technologically enhanced environment, the student-centered approach was more effective than the teacher-guided approach in altering students' alternative conceptions of seasonal change (F = 28.05, p < 0.001). The conceptual evolution of students in the two groups was plotted and compared. These plots indicated that, first of all, the cognitive processes of contextualization and sense making helped students re-examine their old ideas about the phenomena, leading them to generate alternative conceptions and undergo both positive and negative conceptual change. The student-centered approach allows students to more freely test their own hypotheses in the processes of exploration and modeling, and thus move from assimilatory to properly scientific explanations. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:320–344, 2008

Hsu, Y.-S. (2008), Learning about seasons in a technologically enhanced environment: The impact of teacher-guided and student-centered instructional approaches on the process of students' conceptual change. Science Education, 92: 320–344. doi: 10.1002/sce.20242
The study aims to characterize contextual learning during class visits to science and natural history museums. Based on previous studies, we assumed that “outdoor” learning is different from classroom-based learning, and free choice learning in the museums enhances the expression of learning in personal context. We studied about 750 students participating in class visits at four museums, focusing on the levels of choice provided through the activity. The museums were of different sizes, locations, visitor number, and foci. A descriptive-interpretative approach was adopted, with data sources comprising observations, semistructured interviews with students, and museum worksheets. Analysis of the museum activities has yielded four levels of choice that affect learning from no choice to free choice activities. The effectiveness of learning was examined as well by looking at task behavior, linkage to the students' prior knowledge and their school's science curriculum, and linkage to the students' life and experience. Our findings indicate that activities of limited choice offered scaffolding, allowed the students to control their learning, and enhanced deeper engagement in the learning process. Within all the choice opportunities, the students connected the visit to their own life experiences and to their prior knowledge, even when the guided activity scarcely addressed it. Critical responses were obtained mainly when the museum environment allows a variety of learning opportunities without directing the students. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:75–95, 2007

Bamberger, Y. and Tal, T. (2007), Learning in a personal context: Levels of choice in a free choice learning environment in science and natural history museums. Science Education, 91: 75–95. doi: 10.1002/sce.20174
This paper reports on the findings of a case study that investigated the interaction of the agendas and practices of students, teachers, and zoo educators during a class field trip to a zoo. The study reports on findings of the analysis of two case classes of students and their perceptions of their learning experiences during the field trip. The goals, expectations, and perceived outcomes of the trip for students, their classroom teachers, and the zoo educators were elicited through interviews, surveys, student work, and observations. Both cases demonstrated how students placed high value and importance on social interactions with their peers. In addition, classroom teachers' pedagogical practices and the learning agendas they held for their students had a significant influence on students' subsequent learning and perceptions of the experience. This was in contrast to the zoo educators' practices and agendas that appeared not to be significant influences on student learning and perceptions. Implications for field trip planning and implementation are discussed. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:122–141, 2010

Davidson, S. K., Passmore, C. and Anderson, D. (2010), Learning on zoo field trips: The interaction of the agendas and practices of students, teachers, and zoo educators. Science Education, 94: 122–141. doi: 10.1002/sce.20356
This paper examines the nature of kindergarten students' science learning from an inquiry unit in which they investigated the life cycle of the monarch butterfly. The unit was implemented in a public school serving a socioeconomically, ethnically, and linguistically diverse student population. The paper provides descriptive data on children's science learning from their investigations. The descriptive data were collected during the implementation of the inquiry unit using an electronic portfolio system. A second set of data on science learning was collected using an objective, researcher-designed instrument called the Science Learning Assessment (SLA). These data were collected from children in the intervention who completed the inquiry unit and from a comparison group of kindergarten students that was similar in demographic characteristics but did not receive systematic science instruction. The comparison group provides baseline data about kindergarten students' science concepts in the absence of targeted science instruction. There were 100 participants (65 intervention and 35 comparison students). Results indicate that intervention students demonstrated a functional understanding of scientific inquiry processes and of important life science concepts during their investigations. Statistical analyses of SLA data indicate that the intervention group showed significantly better understanding of scientific inquiry processes than the comparison group. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:868–908, 2008

Samarapungavan, A., Mantzicopoulos, P. and Patrick, H. (2008), Learning science through inquiry in kindergarten. Science Education, 92: 868–908. doi: 10.1002/sce.20275
Windschitl, M. A. (2007), Learning science: A singular plural perspective. Science Education, 91: 678–680. doi: 10.1002/sce.20222
This paper describes a comprehensive set of studies designed to assess the potential for commercial reading programs to teach reading in science. Specific questions focus on the proportion of selections in the programs that contain science and the amount of science that is in those selections, on the genres in which the science is portrayed, on the areas and topics of science covered, on the accuracy of the scientific content, on the text features used to communicate the science, and on the instructional strategies and assessment techniques recommended. The findings show that commercial reading programs have changed substantially from the days when they were dominated by literary texts and contained hardly any science. Now, there is a variety of genres and scientific content in about one fifth of the selections. The content is also generally accurate. So, there is considerable potential offered by these programs for teaching children to read science. Unfortunately, the findings also show that the recommended instructional strategies and assessment techniques do little to capitalize upon this potential. In particular, the findings demonstrate that, although most of the science is cast in the expository genre, most of the recommended instruction and assessment is more appropriate to the literary genres. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:765–798, 2008

Norris, S. P., Phillips, L. M., Smith, M. L., Guilbert, S. M., Stange, D. M., Baker, J. J. and Weber, A. C. (2008), Learning to read scientific text: Do elementary school commercial reading programs help?. Science Education, 92: 765–798. doi: 10.1002/sce.20266
New views of proficiency in K-8 science that highlight the importance of engaging children in the discourses and practices of science have raised the stakes for elementary teachers and the teacher educators who prepare them. In this paper, a framework for teaching science as argument is presented. The framework is advanced as a means of addressing problems of practices faced by preservice teachers, creating coherence for the design of teacher education experiences, and serving as a tool for shaping a design-based research agenda. Findings of three research studies that examined preservice teachers' developing understandings and practices for teaching science as argument and the ways in which teacher education experiences mediated learning are synthesized. Across the studies, findings suggest that the framework serves as a powerful scaffold for preservice teachers' developing thinking and practice. More specifically, early attention to evidence and argument can leverage other important aspects of effective science teaching, such as attention to classroom discourse and the role of the teacher in monitoring and assessing children's thinking. In closing, a case is made for coherence among science learning opportunities, learning to teach science experiences, and field experiences. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:687–719, 2009

Zembal-Saul, C. (2009), Learning to teach elementary school science as argument. Science Education, 93: 687–719. doi: 10.1002/sce.20325
Reform efforts in science education emphasize the importance of rigorous treatment of science standards and use of innovative pedagogical approaches to make science more meaningful and successful. In this paper, we present a learning-goals-driven design model for developing curriculum materials, which combines national standards and a project-based pedagogical approach. We describe our design model in the context of the Investigating and Questioning our World through Science and Technology (IQWST) project, which is developing a three-year coordinated series of middle grades science curriculum materials. From using this model in the development and enactment of the curriculum, we identified three important characteristics: unpacking national science standards, developing a learning performances approach to specifying learning goals, and aligning learning goals, instructional activities, and assessments. Using a case study of an IQWST unit from initial development through two cycles of enactment, we describe how these three characteristics help guide curriculum design, identify design issues in curriculum enactments, and guide the development of design solutions. The iterative use of the learning-goals-driven design model coupled with the analysis of multiple data sources informed our revision of the curriculum materials, resulting in substantial student learning gains for the targeted science content and scientific inquiry learning goals. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:1–32, 2008

Krajcik, J., McNeill, K. L. and Reiser, B. J. (2008), Learning-goals-driven design model: Developing curriculum materials that align with national standards and incorporate project-based pedagogy. Science Education, 92: 1–32. doi: 10.1002/sce.20240
Sadler, T. D. (2008), Life as it is: Biology for the public sphere. Science Education, 92: 1145–1148. doi: 10.1002/sce.20314
Gishlick, A. (2007), Living with Darwin: Evolution, design, and the future of faith. Science Education, 91: 840–841. doi: 10.1002/sce.20231
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Students studying in government-run schools in rural India possess much experiential knowledge of the world around them. This paper presents a narrative account of an ethnographic exploration of such students as they attempted to learn about electricity in an eighth-grade classroom in a government-run schools in a village in India. The paper shows how students having a rich experience with household electric circuits attempt, in a contingent and situated manner, to negotiate their role as students and participate in the school science discourse. The students' actions expressed agency that was contingent, situated, and aimed at selective appropriation of school science discourse for their own purposes. Such expressions of student agency indicate rich possibilities for meaningful learning of science in rural schools in India provided school science is made relevant for their lives and concerns. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:297–319, 2008

Sharma, A. (2008), Making (electrical) connections: Exploring student agency in a school in India. Science Education, 92: 297–319. doi: 10.1002/sce.20246
When teachers or students assess the quality of ideas in science classes, they do so mostly based on textbook correctness; ideas are good to the extent they align with or lead to the content as presented in the textbook or curriculum. Such appeals to authority are at odds with the values and practices within the disciplines of science. There has been significant amount of attention to this mismatch in the science education research literature, primarily with respect to experimentation and argumentation as core disciplinary means of assessing ideas. In this article, we call attention to another aspect of scientific reasoning: a focus on causal mechanisms in explaining natural phenomena. We highlight examples and research from the history and philosophy of science to clarify what scientists mean by “mechanism” and to make the case for its centrality. We then present an excerpt from a second-grade class in which a student provides an incorrect mechanistic explanation, and the teacher gives priority to textbook correctness. As the conversation proceeds, the student shifts from mechanistic sensemaking to quoting terminology she does not understand. We argue that attention to mechanism in the classroom would better support student reasoning and better reflect disciplinary epistemology. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:875–891, 2009

Russ, R. S., Coffey, J. E., Hammer, D. and Hutchison, P. (2009), Making classroom assessment more accountable to scientific reasoning: A case for attending to mechanistic thinking. Science Education, 93: 875–891. doi: 10.1002/sce.20320
Constructing scientific explanations and participating in argumentative discourse are seen as essential practices of scientific inquiry (e.g., R. Driver, P. Newton, & J. Osborne, 2000). In this paper, we identify three goals of engaging in these related scientific practices: (1) sensemaking, (2) articulating, and (3) persuading. We propose using these goals to understand student engagement with these practices, and to design instructional interventions to support students. Thus, we use this framework as a lens to investigate the question: What successes and challenges do students face as they engage in the scientific practices of explanation and argumentation? We study this in the context of a curriculum that provides students and teachers with an instructional framework for constructing and defending scientific explanations. Through this analysis, we find that students consistently use evidence to make sense of phenomenon and articulate those understandings but they do not consistently attend to the third goal of persuading others of their understandings. Examining the third goal more closely reveals that persuading others of an understanding requires social interactions that are often inhibited by traditional classroom interactions. Thus, we conclude by proposing design strategies for addressing the social challenges inherent in the related scientific practices of explanation and argumentation. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:26–55, 2009

Berland, L. K. and Reiser, B. J. (2009), Making sense of argumentation and explanation. Science Education, 93: 26–55. doi: 10.1002/sce.20286
The National Research Council ([NRC], 2001) has stated that formative assessment is essential to fulfilling the mission of the National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996). This paper explores the relative utility of four different types of formative assessment prompts in eliciting middle school students' ideas about sinking and floating. Students' written responses and statements in classroom discussions around each of the prompts are compared. Results indicate that the relative success of the prompts in eliciting a range of conceptions may depend on the openness and familiarity of the prompts. Prompts with fewer constraints and unfamiliar settings elicited a range of student conceptions in writing; however, discussions surrounding the prompts were more likely to elicit ideas at the expected level, or no student ideas at all. A comparison of the prompts revealed that the diversity of students' responses in writing was not reflected in classroom discussions. The study suggests that open-format formative assessment prompts may function better when used as a basis for teachers to elicit a range of student ideas in writing, whereas constrained-outcome space prompts may be more appropriate for whole-class conversations that focus students upon scientifically appropriate responses. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:799–824, 2008

Furtak, E. M. and Ruiz-Primo, M. A. (2008), Making students' thinking explicit in writing and discussion: An analysis of formative assessment prompts. Science Education, 92: 799–824. doi: 10.1002/sce.20270
Preliminary pilot studies and a field study show how a generalizable conceptual framework calibrated with item response modeling can be used to describe the development of student conceptual understanding in chemistry. ChemQuery is an assessment system that uses a framework of the key ideas in the discipline, called the Perspectives of Chemists, and criterion-referenced analysis using item response models (item response theory (IRT)) to map student progress. It includes assessment questions, a scoring rubric, item exemplars, and a framework to describe the paths of student understanding that emerge. Integral to criterion-referenced measurement is a focus on what is being measured: the intention of the assessment, its purpose, and the context in which it is going to be used. The Perspectives framework allows us to begin to narrate the development of understanding that occurs as students “learn'' over the course of instruction, helping to form a crosswalk among educational science standards and underscore the importance of scientific reasoning with domain knowledge. Here, we explain a framework we have investigated in chemistry and present evidence on measures of student understanding to describe the development of conceptual understanding at the high school and university levels. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:56–85, 2009

Claesgens, J., Scalise, K., Wilson, M. and Stacy, A. (2009), Mapping student understanding in chemistry: The Perspectives of Chemists. Science Education, 93: 56–85. doi: 10.1002/sce.20292
The teaching of science is a complex process, involving the use of multiple modalities. This paper illustrates the potential of a multimodal semiotics discourse analysis framework to illuminate meaning-making possibilities during the teaching of a science concept. A multimodal semiotics analytical framework is developed and used to (1) analyze the semiotic and epistemological meanings communicated by multiple modalities during the teaching of a biology concept and (2) highlight features of semiotic modalities that extend meaning-making opportunities in science classrooms. The classroom discourse of a Grade 11 biology teacher was analyzed during the teaching of the concept chemosynthesis. Data were drawn from lesson transcripts, observational fieldnotes, and informal interviews with the teacher. The findings showed that the multimodal semiotics framework was useful at illustrating how semiotic and epistemological functions of modalities compounded meanings. Most significantly, an emergent multimodal framework relating semiotic functions and science learning outcomes emerged that has the potential to (1) act as a metacognitive tool for teachers to select, sequence, and scaffold modalities and (2) act as an analytical framework for educational researchers to analyze meaning making in science teaching and learning. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:48–72, 2010

Jaipal, K. (2010), Meaning making through multiple modalities in a biology classroom: A multimodal semiotics discourse analysis. Science Education, 94: 48–72. doi: 10.1002/sce.20359
Au, W. (2009), Measuring up: What educational testing really tells us. Science Education, 93: 186–188. doi: 10.1002/sce.20316
In this paper, instructional strategies for sustaining model-based inquiry in an undergraduate chemistry class were analyzed through data collected from classroom observations, a student survey, and in-depth problem-solving sessions with the instructor and students. Analysis of teacher–student interactions revealed a cyclical pattern in which students generated, evaluated, and modified (GEM) hypotheses throughout the course. It is hypothesized that sustained involvement in the GEM cycle contributed to students' engagement with scientific inquiry and model construction and revision. As such, GEM represents a promising approach toward achieving process and content goals in the undergraduate chemistry classroom. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed, 91:877–905, 2007

Khan, S. (2007), Model-based inquiries in chemistry. Science Education, 91: 877–905. doi: 10.1002/sce.20226
Modeling is being used in teaching learning science in a number of ways. It will be considered here as a process whereby children of primary school age exercise their capacity of organizing recognizable and manageable forms during their understanding of complex phenomenologies. The aim of this work is to characterize this process in relation to the modeling of properties of and changes in materials. The data are discussed by establishing relationships between the modeling process with three different aspects: the specialized scientific knowledge, the physical manipulation of phenomena, and the interaction among those participating in the class. The results show how 7–8-year-old students generate a modeling process that leads them to explain the behavior of different materials by using a “model of parts” created ad hoc. This model, built up from some kind of a discrete vision of the material, proves to be coherent for children of this age and evolves by relating the visible continuum with an imagined discontinuum. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:398–418, 2007

Acher, A., Arcà, M. and Sanmartí, N. (2007), Modeling as a teaching learning process for understanding materials: A case study in primary education. Science Education, 91: 398–418. doi: 10.1002/sce.20196
This study investigated the prevalence of transformative experiences, antecedents of transformative experience, and the relation between transformative experience and deep-level learning (conceptual change and transfer) for high school biology students (N = 166). Results suggested that the high school students in our sample typically engaged in low levels of transformative experience with respect to biology, but those students who strongly identified with science and who endorsed a mastery goal orientation were more likely to report engagement in higher levels of transformative experience. Furthermore, a higher level of engagement in transformative experience was positively associated with (a) conceptual change in understanding the concept of natural selection, but not inheritance, at the post- and follow-up assessments and (b) transfer at the follow-up assessment. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:1–28, 2010

Pugh, K. J., Linnenbrink-Garcia, L., Koskey, K. L. K., Stewart, V. C. and Manzey, C. (2010), Motivation, learning, and transformative experience: A study of deep engagement in science. Science Education, 94: 1–28. doi: 10.1002/sce.20344
This paper discusses conceptions of identity in relation to science education and presents material from a series of interviews and focus groups with graduate students in science and technology. Given difficulties in retention and levels of significant participation by minority students indicated by aggregate data, the issue of race, as it informs critical interactions at a majority research university, is explored in terms of its effects on identity formation. It is argued that we need to look at “real-time” science to see how subtle interactions affect minority graduate students. These interactions reveal how identity is established through the positioning inside or outside of the laboratory culture. Three themes were explored regarding the tensions of identity formation in the context of race and science education: (1) the issue of isolation, marginalization, and invisibility; (2) being valued through recognition of one's contributions to the community of scientists; and (3) reading race as an additional burden for minority students. Two participants' stories and their positioning as outsiders are explored in detail. The authors contrast building an identity as a scientist through one's educational experiences against being positioned as the “only one” representing his or her race at a primarily White institution. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93: 485–510, 2009

Malone, K. R. and Barabino, G. (2009), Narrations of race in STEM research settings: Identity formation and its discontents. Science Education, 93: 485–510. doi: 10.1002/sce.20307
Given the impact of textbooks on learning, this study assesses the five most frequently used secondary school biology textbooks in Turkey to examine the nature and the quality of treatment given to the nature of science. A qualitative oriented approach was employed and ethnographic content analysis was used as the methodological framework for this particular research. Data were analyzed by means of cognitive maps. The investigation revealed a number of serious problems with the way nature of science is portrayed in the textbooks. Science was generally portrayed as collection of facts, not as a dynamic process of generating and testing alternative explanations about nature. The authors of the textbooks often appeared not to understand the processes well enough to explain them to students and therefore presented various misleading and inadequate descriptions regarding scientific enterprise, similar to those revealed by research on science teachers' and students' understandings of science. Furthermore, some important aspects of science were found to be neglected by textbooks. The study discusses the future success of scientific literacy movement in Turkey and has implications for science education, science curriculum, and science teacher education in Turkey and other developing countries. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93: 422–447, 2009

Irez, S. (2009), Nature of science as depicted in Turkish biology textbooks. Science Education, 93: 422–447. doi: 10.1002/sce.20305
In this paper, we synthesize two bodies of work related to students' representational activities: the notions of meta-representational competence and representation as a form of practice. We report on video analyses of kindergarten and first-grade students as they create representations of pollination in a science classroom, as well as summarize results from interviews regarding the design choices that they made. Analysis of the semistructured pre- and postinterviews reveals that students attend to the content domain, local activity, and their personal preferences when evaluating representations. Analysis of video case studies that followed the students as they created their representations further reveals several key mediators of the students' representational activities, including other students, task constraints, the teacher, and local norms for what constituted a “good representation.” In addition, the data show that these norms shifted over time as new content was covered in the class, and were appropriated in interaction with other students. Finally, both sets of analyses reveal that students often face competing constraints when creating their representations, and resolve these constraints through a complex set of negotiations. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:1–35, 2007

Danish, J. A. and Enyedy, N. (2007), Negotiated representational mediators: How young children decide what to include in their science representations. Science Education, 91: 1–35. doi: 10.1002/sce.20166
Many researchers and teacher educators propose that reflection is an important way teachers can think about changing their views and practices. The hierarchical constructs used to describe reflection, however, are often interpreted in ways that promote reflection as a toolteachers use to elevate their views and practices toward ideal “end goals” rather than as a more complex intellectual act that could help them learn how to shape their own goals. This research explores how four early career science teachers learned to negotiate the conflicts between their own goals and actual practices by situating their reflections in multiple contexts. They were invited to become aware of those conflicts through interviews and discussions of classroom observations and then to address them by actually teaching toward their own unrealized goals. The data generated from these activities were described with a rubric based on M. van Manen's reflection construct (1977) but were framed with certain perceptions each teacher had about her or his own science teaching. Several patterns emerged across the four teachers' cases that challenge the use of reflection as a tool and suggest how science teachers can reflect as a way to take greater ownership over and responsibility for their own lifelong learning. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:629–663, 2007

Danielowich, R. (2007), Negotiating the conflicts: Reexamining the structure and function of reflection in science teacher learning. Science Education, 91: 629–663. doi: 10.1002/sce.20207
Engagement has been viewed as an important construct to understand students' learning performances in classroom settings. Taking an interactive perspective, the study investigates ninth graders' cognitive, emotional, and behavioral engagement in teacher-centered (TC) and student-centered (SC) technology-enhanced classrooms. 54 students from two science classes in Taiwan participated in this study. Multiple sources of data were collected during a 3-week instructional unit. The statistical results showed that although students in the SC class reported having significantly higher emotional engagement, the emotional engagement level had no impact on students' learning achievement. Analyses of qualitative data showed that students in both classes spent a majority of class time on cognitive involvement in learning activities, but there were qualitative differences in cognitive and behavioral engagement between the two classes. One type of activities that did not occur in the TC class was making reflections in which students in the SC class self-assessed what they did. In addition, the SC class usually interacted through group discussions provoked by the simulations, whereas the TC class frequently interacted through initiation–response–evaluation sequences and engaged in student-initiated discussions. The findings suggest that both instructional approaches promoted students' conceptual understanding and provided students with different opportunities to engage in science learning. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:727–749, 2007

Wu, H.-K. and Huang, Y.-L. (2007), Ninth-grade student engagement in teacher-centered and student-centered technology-enhanced learning environments. Science Education, 91: 727–749. doi: 10.1002/sce.20216
Inquiry is seen as central to the reform of science teaching and learning, but few teachers have experience with scientific inquiry and thus possess very naïve conceptions of it. One promising form of professional development, research experiences for teachers (RETs), allows teachers to experience scientific inquiry in the hopes that these experiences will then translate to inquiry in the classroom. As intuitively pleasing as these programs are, scant evidence documents their effectiveness. For this study, four secondary science teachers were followed back to their classrooms following a 6-week, marine ecology RET. The research employed qualitative and quantitative data collection to answer these questions: What were the teachers' initial conceptions and enactment of classroom inquiry, and how did they change after the RET?; How did changes in the nature and use of questions highlight changes in inquiry enactment?; and How were the teachers' changes linked to the RET and are there changes that cannot be explained by the RET experience? Teachers who entered the program with more sophisticated, theory-based understanding of teaching and learning were more apt to understand inquiry as a model and to use classroom-based inquiry throughout their teaching following the program. Implications for professional development are discussed. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93: 322–360, 2009

Blanchard, M. R., Southerland, S. A. and Granger, E. M. (2009), No silver bullet for inquiry: Making sense of teacher change following an inquiry-based research experience for teachers. Science Education, 93: 322–360. doi: 10.1002/sce.20298
Southerland, S. A. and Golden, B. W. (2007), Not in our classrooms: Why intelligent design is wrong for our schools. Science Education, 91: 681–682. doi: 10.1002/sce.20221
When lecturing, teachers make use of both verbal and nonverbal communication. What is called teaching, therefore, involves not only the words and sentences a teacher utters and writes on the board during a lesson, but also all the hands/arms gestures, body movements, and facial expressions a teacher performs in the classroom. All of these communicative modalities constitute resources that are made available to students for making sense of and learning from lectures. Yet in the literature on teaching science, these other means of communication are little investigated and understood—and, correspondingly, they are undertheorized. The purpose of this position paper is to argue for a different view of concepts in lectures: they are performed simultaneously drawing on and producing multiple resources that are different expressions of the same holistic meaning unit. To support our point, we provide examples from a database of 26 lectures in a 12th-grade biology class, where the human body was the main topic of study. We analyze how different types of resources—including verbal and nonverbal discourse and various material artifacts—interact during lectures. We provide evidence for the unified production of these various sense-making resources during teaching to constitute a meaning unit, and we emphasize particularly the use of gestures and body orientations inside this meaning unit. We suggest that proper analyses of meaning units need to take into account not only language and diagrams but also a lecturer's pointing and depicting gestures, body positions, and the relationships between these different modalities. Scientific knowledge (conceptions) exists in the concurrent display of all sense-making resources, which we, following Vygotsky, understand as forming a unit (identity) of nonidentical entities. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:96–114, 2007

Pozzer-Ardenghi, L. and Roth, W.-M. (2007), On performing concepts during science lectures. Science Education, 91: 96–114. doi: 10.1002/sce.20172
The paper compares the nature of the textual construction of the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) science test items and the Greek school science textbooks. This nature is determined by the interplay of the notions of classification (content specialization) and formality (code specialization) modulated by both the linguistic and the visual expressive modes. The results of the relevant analysis showed that the textual materials employed in PISA and in school textbooks are oppositional in nature. Specifically, while the linguistic mode of the PISA items tends to resemble texts falling within the public domain (nonspecialized content and code), the corresponding visual mode tends to resemble texts of the esoteric domain (specialized content and code) thus familiarizing students with the specialized conventions and ways of representing entities falling within the realm of technoscientific knowledge. On the other hand, school science textbooks tend to employ the linguistic and the visual mode in exactly the opposite way. These differences between PISA science items and school science textbooks could contribute to a disorientation of the students in relation to what is expected in each specific context. This disparity could potentially be one of the factors explaining the low level of Greek students' attainment in PISA. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:664–687, 2008

Hatzinikita, V., Dimopoulos, K. and Christidou, V. (2008), PISA test items and school textbooks related to science: A textual comparison. Science Education, 92: 664–687. doi: 10.1002/sce.20256

This essay addresses a call for research involving African Americans to interpret data from the historical, contemporary, and cultural experiences of African Americans. The essay argues for a science education research approach that explicitly considers the positionality of African Americans in the United States. This positionality involves the negotiation of three distinct and conflicting realms of experience that pertain to oppression, African-rooted Black culture, and the dominant culture in the United States. The theoretical tool proposed in this essay accommodates the positionality of African Americans by superimposing it upon a model that synthesizes the ideas of Michael Cole (cultural-historical activity theory) and Urie Bronfenbrenner (ecology of human development). © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:1127–1144, 2008

Parsons, E. R. C. (2008), Positionality of African Americans and a theoretical accommodation of it: Rethinking science education research. Science Education, 92: 1127–1144. doi: 10.1002/sce.20273
Youth from low-income, minority backgrounds have often been marginalized from introductory courses, advanced study and careers in physics. Cultivating student agency may have the potential to improve access for diverse groups of learners. However, the implications of this lens for student learning have been minimally examined in the physics education literature. In this ethnographic study situated in a ninth-grade conceptual physics classroom, I discuss students' critical goals—the intentions, motivations, and desires for change that youth held. These critical goals were related to learning, voice, and participation in relationships and the world. I also describe how student goals demonstrate the idea of “critical subject-matter agency” in physics: students positioning themselves as powerful learners envisioning subject knowledge as a tool for change in their own lives and world. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:252–277, 2008

Basu, S. J. (2008), Powerful learners and critical agents: The goals of five urban Caribbean youth in a conceptual physics classroom. Science Education, 92: 252–277. doi: 10.1002/sce.20241
Hutcheson, P. A. (2008), Powers of the mind: The reinvention of liberal learning in America. Science Education, 92: 381–383. doi: 10.1002/sce.20260
It is recognized widely that learning is a dynamic and idiosyncratic process of construction and reconstruction of concepts in response to new experiences. It is influenced by the learner's prior knowledge, motivation, and sociocultural context. This study investigated how year 11 and 12 physics students' metacognition influences the development of their conceptual understandings of kinematics. An interpretive case study approach was used to investigate students working in collaborative groups in the context of an amusement park physics program. The metacognitive character of individual learners was demonstrated to have a strong influence on their conceptual development. Moreover, the metacognitive character of individuals within the small group contexts investigated was a key factor influencing the groups' collective knowledge development. A coyote–rabbit metaphor was developed to interpret the resilience and weaknesses of individual and group knowledge construction processes, and elucidates new theoretical understandings regarding metacognition and its influence on knowledge construction. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:298–320, 2007

Anderson, D. and Nashon, S. (2007), Predators of knowledge construction: Interpreting students' metacognition in an amusement park physics program. Science Education, 91: 298–320. doi: 10.1002/sce.20176
The elementary science teacher educators in this article set recognize the challenges that new science teachers face when they enter classrooms. They have developed frameworks and strategies aimed at helping the preservice teachers with whom they work become “well-started beginners” who are ready to address problems of science teaching. To do so, these educators purposefully engage the candidates in focused dialogue regarding challenges or problems of practice that they will likely face in their work. These challenges include (1) engaging in science, (2) organizing instruction, and (3) understanding students. The science teacher educators use a dialogic third space to help the preservice teachers reconsider and develop deeper understandings of these problems of practice. In this introduction, we point out some of the common themes that tie these articles together, including (a) a focus on problems of practice in elementary science teaching, (b) a focus on dialogue with preservice teachers about these problems of practice, (c) a commitment to developing tools and approaches that support principled reasoning about these problems of practice, and (d) a commitment to shared goals and methods for research on elementary science teacher education. We point to ways that these themes are addressed in the three articles. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:678–686, 2009

Mikeska, J. N., Anderson, C. W. and Schwarz, C. V. (2009), Principled reasoning about problems of practice. Science Education, 93: 678–686. doi: 10.1002/sce.20312
Two disparate research programs have addressed the challenge of instructional multimedia design. One, based on cognitive load theory, has focused on ways of reducing unnecessary cognitive load during instruction to free up resources for learning. The other, based on constructivism, has centered on interactive multimedia, allowing students to build their own knowledge. Attempting to build on both bodies of literature, in this study, we investigated techniques that can raise the useful cognitive load engendered with linear multimedia. Participating online from home, students were pre- and posttested around a short multimedia intervention that explained Newton's first and second laws. In Experiment 1, students who watched a video dialogue involving alternative conceptions reported investing greater mental effort and achieved higher posttest scores than students who received a standard lecture-style presentation. In Experiment 2, two additional multimedia treatments were evaluated to assess the role of instructional time and the method of addressing alternative conceptions. In all, 272 students participated in the experiments. Interviews suggest that students adopted a more active approach to understanding the material if alternative conceptions were raised. In addition, students who watched the dialogue judged themselves to be similar to the student in the multimedia. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:278–296, 2008

Muller, D. A., Sharma, M. D. and Reimann, P. (2008), Raising cognitive load with linear multimedia to promote conceptual change. Science Education, 92: 278–296. doi: 10.1002/sce.20244
Current opinion holds that school science has not been producing the expected outcomes. Highlighted by a considerable body of research, one of the concerns is that young people still mobilize a naive conception of science. Consequently, we must pursue the reflection process concerning ways of renewing the school conception of science so as to propose ways of representing and doing that are a greater source of participation among students. In this article, we argue for the importance of enriching school discourses by mobilizing a socialized conception of science. Our perspective seeks to highlight the major theoretical contributions of ethnomethodology put forward by Bruno Latour. Hence, we propose an operational definition of the social construction of science based on actor-network theory as an attempt to produce a more focused conceptualization of science as a social enterprise. This theoretical work enables us to bring out various facets of the social construction of science that, in our view, should be accounted for in classes to renew the school image of science in line with the characteristics of contemporary technosciences in the making. Finally, we illustrate how we can mobilize this understanding of science for secondary students. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:743–759, 2010

Richard, V. and Bader, B. (2010), Re-presenting the social construction of science in light of the propositions of Bruno Latour: For a renewal of the school conception of science in secondary schools. Science Education, 94: 743–759. doi: 10.1002/sce.20376
Thirty fourth-grade students participated in an extended intervention previously successful in fostering skills of scientific investigation and inference, notably control of variables (COV). The intervention was similarly successful for a majority of students in the present study, enabling them to isolate the three causal and two noncausal variables operating in a multivariable system. However, when asked to predict outcomes of various constellations of variable levels, they tended not to take into account the effects of all of the causal variables they had identified. Moreover, they did not adhere to a consistency principle, i.e., that a factor that produces an effect can be expected to produce the same effect in the future, given similar conditions. These findings suggest that COV is not the only challenge students experience in reasoning about multiple variables. Elementary-school students' mental models of multivariable causality appear to deviate from a normative, scientific model, even after they have mastered that aspect of scientific method having to do with the design of controlled experiments to isolate effects of individual variables. The challenges, beyond COV, that appear to be involved in making prediction judgments involving multiple variables warrant attention in the design of curricula to foster development of scientific thinking skills. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:710–726, 2007

Kuhn, D. (2007), Reasoning about multiple variables: Control of variables is not the only challenge. Science Education, 91: 710–726. doi: 10.1002/sce.20214
Jungck, J. R. (2007), Reasoning in biological discoveries: Essays of mechanisms, interfield relations, and anomaly resolution. Science Education, 91: 844–845. doi: 10.1002/sce.20229
Being able to make claims about what students know and can do in science involves gathering systematic evidence of students' knowledge and abilities. This paper describes an assessment system designed to elicit information from students at many placements along developmental trajectories and demonstrates how this system was used to gather principled evidence of how students reason about food web and food chain disturbances. Specifically, this assessment system was designed to gather information about students' intermediary or middle knowledge on a pathway toward more sophisticated understanding. Findings indicate that in association with a curricular intervention, student gains were significant. However, despite overall gains, some students still struggled to explain what might happen during a disturbance to an ecosystem. In addition, this paper discusses the importance of having a cognitive framework to guide task design and interpretation of evidence. This framework allowed for the gathering of detailed information, which provided insights into the intricacies of how students reason about scientific scenarios. In particular, this assessment system allowed for the illustration of multiple types of middle knowledge that students may possess, indicating that there are multiple “messy middles” students may move through as they develop the ability to reason about complex scientific situations. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:259–281, 2010

Gotwals, A. W. and Songer, N. B. (2010), Reasoning up and down a food chain: Using an assessment framework to investigate students' middle knowledge. Science Education, 94: 259–281. doi: 10.1002/sce.20368
Science education reform has long focused on assessing student inquiry, and there has been progress in developing tools specifically with respect to experimentation and argumentation. We suggest the need for attention to another aspect of inquiry, namely mechanistic reasoning. Scientific inquiry focuses largely on understanding causal mechanisms that underlie natural phenomena. We have adapted an account of mechanism from philosophy of science studies in professional science [Machamer, P., Darden, D., & Craver, C. F., (2000). Thinking about mechanisms. Philosophy of Science, 67, 1–25] to develop a framework for discourse analysis that aids in identifying and analyzing students' mechanistic reasoning. We analyze a discussion among first-grade students about falling objects (1) to illustrate the generativity of the framework, (2) to demonstrate that mechanistic reasoning is abundantly present even in these young students, and (3) to show that mechanistic reasoning is episodic in their discourse. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:499–525, 2008

Russ, R. S., Scherr, R. E., Hammer, D. and Mikeska, J. (2008), Recognizing mechanistic reasoning in student scientific inquiry: A framework for discourse analysis developed from philosophy of science. Science Education, 92: 499–525. doi: 10.1002/sce.20264
The photoelectric effect is an important part of general physics textbooks. To study the presentation of this phenomenon, we have reconstructed six essential, history and philosophy of science (HPS)-related aspects of the events that culminated in Einstein proposing his hypothesis of lightquanta and the ensuing controversy within the scientific community. These aspects are (1) Lenard's trigger hypothesis to explain the photoelectric effect, (2) Einstein's quantum hypothesis to explain the photoelectric effect, (3) lack of acceptance of Einstein's quantum hypothesis in the scientific community, (4) Millikan's experimental determination of the Einstein photoelectric equation and Planck's constant, h, (5) Millikan's presuppositions about the nature of light, and (6) the historical presentation and its interpretation within a history and philosophy of science perspective. Using these aspects as criteria, we analyzed 103 university general physics textbooks. Results obtained reveal that these historical elements are largely ignored or distorted in the textbooks, with only three of the texts obtaining a score of satisfactory and none a score of excellent. It is concluded that inclusion of HPS-related aspects in general physics textbooks can facilitate a better understanding of the dynamics associated with the initial controversy and final acceptance of Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect by the scientific community. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:903–931, 2010

Niaz, M., Klassen, S., McMillan, B. and Metz, D. (2010), Reconstruction of the history of the photoelectric effect and its implications for general physics textbooks. Science Education, 94: 903–931. doi: 10.1002/sce.20389
Cuban, L. (2010), Rethinking education in the age of technology: The digital revolution and schooling in America. Science Education, 94: 1125–1127. doi: 10.1002/sce.20415
Howe, E. (2008), Rethinking expertise. Science Education, 92: 1148–1149. doi: 10.1002/sce.20315
Educators repeatedly underscore the intimate relationship between science and technology. This is problematic because technology, far from being “applied science,” presupposes a unique epistemology (techno-epistemology). A focus on the role of science in technology overshadows this unique way of knowing and hence limits technology education and privileges a scientific worldview in education. To appropriately frame the unique epistemology of technology in education, we propose a cognitive framework developed to understand the use and development of tools in human activity, namely, Cultural-Historical Activity Theory (CHAT). Drawing on a case study of technology that is not rooted in a (Eurocentric) scientific tradition, the SXOLE (Reef Net) fishing technology of the WSÁNEĆ (Saanich) people, we show how technology can be understood as inherent to human praxis, which presupposes a dialectically related and unique epistemology that is incommensurable and irreducible to a scientific worldview. The implications of this framework for science and technology education are discussed. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93: 218–232, 2009

Eijck, M. V. and Claxton, N. X. (2009), Rethinking the notion of technology in education: Techno-epistemology as a feature inherent to human praxis. Science Education, 93: 218–232. doi: 10.1002/sce.20308
Blacks, Hispanics/Latinos, and Native Americans have long been underrepresented in schools and the workplace in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Although the monitoring of representation has become a larger and more important enterprise, existing databases make it difficult to discern trends in participation at different stages of science education as well as the magnitude of the differences in representation across racial/ethnic groups. We reanalyze four nationally representative databases to call attention to the difficulties, and we offer a solution—a ratio of representation. Our investigation of the representation of students in the biological sciences indicates that gains in the percentages of non-Asian minorities in the biological sciences over almost two decades do not exceed their growth in the U.S. population and, furthermore, that their underrepresentation appears to increase as they move through higher education. We call for the development of multiple measures of representation in the sciences, given the complexities of representing representation and the issue's importance for science, public health, and the American polity. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:961–977, 2009

Lewis, J. L., Menzies, H., Nájera, E. I. and Page, R. N. (2009), Rethinking trends in minority participation in the sciences. Science Education, 93: 961–977. doi: 10.1002/sce.20338
Reform efforts in science education have focused on engaging students in authentic scientific practices. For these efforts to succeed, detailed articulations of scientific practice need to be linked to understandings of classroom practice. Here we characterize engagement in practice generally in terms of “3Rs”: routines, roles, and responsibilities. We argue that there is a misalignment between the 3Rs of scientific practice and the practices common in classrooms, and that this misalignment poses a considerable obstacle for beginning teachers who attempt to implement reform pedagogy. As part of a secondary methods course, 16 preservice teachers (PSTs) participated in two exemplar activities designed to engage them in scientific practices. The PST performances suggest that at least initially, they did not consider authentic scientific practices appropriate for classroom activities, implying a pedagogical repertoire dominated by the 3Rs of traditional classrooms. PST performances, however, evidenced a shift in the 3Rs from those common in classrooms to those required by these activities, suggesting that their visions for classrooms are malleable and underlining the importance of aligning the 3Rs of scientific and classroom practices during teacher preparation. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:133–157, 2007

Ford, M. J. and Wargo, B. M. (2007), Routines, roles, and responsibilities for aligning scientific and classroom practices. Science Education, 91: 133–157. doi: 10.1002/sce.20171
Bianchini, J. A. (2007), Science education and student diversity: Synthesis and research agenda. Science Education, 91: 518–521. doi: 10.1002/sce.20212
The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act requires states to measure the adequate yearly progress (AYP) of each public school and local educational agency (LEA) and to hold schools and LEAs accountable for failing to make AYP. Although it is required that science be assessed in at least three grades, the achievement results from science examinations are not required to be used when calculating AYP. A history of attempts to include science into AYP calculations and the role of science education within state accountability programs is provided here. An examination of National Assessment of Educational Progress science achievement data revealed that those states that opted to make schools accountable for students' science achievement had significantly higher fourth-grade mean scale scores when compared to states that did not include science in this manner. However, a significant difference was not found between these groups of states when analyzing eighth-grade data. Specific recommendations are provided to include science into accountability programs and to ameliorate existing requirements of NCLB. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:888–902, 2010

Judson, E. (2010), Science education as a contributor to adequate yearly progress and accountability programs. Science Education, 94: 888–902. doi: 10.1002/sce.20396
Terzian, S. G. (2010), Science on the air: Popularizers and personalities on radio and early television. Science Education, 94: 571–573. doi: 10.1002/sce.20378
Weldon, S. P. (2008), Science talk: Changing notions of science in American popular culture. Science Education, 92: 759–761. doi: 10.1002/sce.20287
Heimlich, J. E. (2010), Science, society and sustainability: Education and empowerment for an uncertain world. Science Education, 94: 934–935. doi: 10.1002/sce.20388
This case study explores how an American Indian woman experienced scientific discourse and the issues of language, power, and authority that occurred while she was an undergraduate student at a university in the southwestern United States. This ethnographic research, using a phenomenological perspective, describes her experiences as she searched for the discursive resources she required to cross-cultural borders between her traditional worldview and Eurocentric science. Data from interviews, participant observation, and artifacts offer a narrative of how she became aware of the “game rules” of scientific discourse. The findings are expressed in terms of a cartographic metaphor where the student's world became less of a list of categories and more of a map outlining where she ventured and the ways in which she oriented herself to scientific language. To facilitate the border crossing and reduce the obstacles that some students experience in crossing between worldviews, educators can look at cross-cultural perspectives and explore with students how language fosters or hinders their progress. This research suggests that we allow room in our pedagogy for students to learn the rules of using scientific language, make explicit the cultural norms associated with this practice, thereby promoting a “metaknowledge” of how scientific discourse functions in the academy. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:825–847, 2008

Brandt, C. B. (2008), Scientific discourse in the academy: A case study of an American Indian undergraduate. Science Education, 92: 825–847. doi: 10.1002/sce.20258
Argumentation is a core practice of science and has recently been advocated as an essential goal of science education. Our research focuses on the discourse in urban high school science classrooms in which the teachers used the same global climate change curriculum. We analyzed transcripts from three teachers' classrooms examining both the argument structure as well the dialogic interactions between students. Between 19% and 35% of the discourse focused on scientific argumentation in that students were using evidence and reasoning to justify their claims. Yet in terms of dialogic interactions, only one teacher's classroom was characterized by student-to-student interactions and students explicitly supporting or refuting the ideas presented by their peers. This teacher's use of open questions appeared to encourage students to construct and justify their claims using both their scientific and everyday knowledge. Furthermore, her explicit connections to previous students' comments appeared to encourage students to consider multiple views, reflect on their thinking and reflect on the thinking of their classmates. This study suggests that a teacher's use of open-ended questions may play a key role in supporting students in argumentation in terms of both providing evidence and reasoning for students' claims and encouraging dialogic interactions between students. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:203–229, 2010

McNeill, K. L. and Pimentel, D. S. (2010), Scientific discourse in three urban classrooms: The role of the teacher in engaging high school students in argumentation. Science Education, 94: 203–229. doi: 10.1002/sce.20364
In this article, a rationale for advancing a new idea in humanistic science education is developed from a Paulo Freire perspective. Paulo Freire developed a well-known approach to adult literacy based on his humanistic ideas through the dialogical process. From Freirean educational principles, the idea unfolds that a Freirean humanistic science education perspective is a political commitment to sociopolitical action, considering conditions of oppression in society. Although some humanistic science education approaches to school science have incorporated a sociopolitical perspective, it is showed that not all of them necessarily focus on the political purpose of transforming oppressive conditions in society as stressed by Paulo Freire. From this Freirean humanistic perspective, an approach to science education is then highlighted, which implies the introduction of socially relevant themes and socioscientific issues, the establishment of a dialogical process in classroom, and the development of sociopolitical action. Hence, a Freirean perspective of science education is presented as a radical view of scientific literacy. Some implications of a Freirean approach to science education are outlined at the end of the paper. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93: 361–382, 2009

Santos, W. L. P. D. (2009), Scientific literacy: A Freirean perspective as a radical view of humanistic science education. Science Education, 93: 361–382. doi: 10.1002/sce.20301
During the past decade science educators have taken steps to identify seminal structures and approaches of science teacher professional development. This literature, which is increasingly informing how and in which contexts professional developers design and implement programs, states that scientists' divergent research interests and knowledge about K-12 science teachers often limit their involvement in these programs. Conversely, concerns persist that there is very little empirical evidence to support these programmatic recommendations made by the science education literature. This embedded case study was bounded by the contextual similarities between seven professional development workshops with the goal of examining the relationship between scientists' views of teachers as professionals and the pedagogical orientations that the scientists used within these professional development contexts. Multiple methods were employed including systematic classroom observation by nine trained observers, as well as analysis of course materials, interviews, and questionnaires. Altogether, the teacher comments and observation data paint a picture of how the instructors implemented specific pedagogical orientations. Participants appear to have realistic views about the practical roles that research scientists can play in professional development. We explore how these findings merit attention and suggest alternatives to current practice and policy. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:635–655, 2009

Schuster, D. A. and Carlsen, W. S. (2009), Scientists' teaching orientations in the context of teacher professional development. Science Education, 93: 635–655. doi: 10.1002/sce.20310
We teach earth, ecological, and environmental sciences in and about places imbued with meaning by human experience. Scientific understanding is but one of the many types of meanings that can accrue to a given place. People develop emotional attachments to meaningful places. The sense of place, encompassing the meanings and attachments that places hold for people, has been well characterized in environmental psychology. Its components, place attachment and place meaning, can be measured psychometrically. Place-based science teaching focuses on local and regional environments and synthesizes different ways of knowing them, leveraging the senses of place of students and teachers. Place-based teaching has been advocated for its relevance and potential to attract underrepresented groups to science. We posit that sense of place is a measurable learning outcome of place-based science teaching. We developed an Arizona-based, culturally inclusive, meaning-rich introductory geology course, and used published surveys to assess place attachment and meaning in students who took the course. We observed significant gains in student place attachment and place meaning, indicating that these instruments are generalizable and sensitive enough for use in this context. Sense of place should be engaged by teachers of place-based science, and further explored as an assessment measure. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:1042–1057, 2008

Semken, S. and Freeman, C. B. (2008), Sense of place in the practice and assessment of place-based science teaching. Science Education, 92: 1042–1057. doi: 10.1002/sce.20279
2007~2011
Science Education
This study describes an example of design-based research in which we make theoretical improvements in our understanding, in part based on empirical work, and use these to revise our curriculum and, simultaneously, our evolving theory of the relations between contexts and disciplinary formalisms. Prior to this study, we completed a first cycle of design revisions to a game-based ecological sciences curriculum to make more apparent specific domain concepts associated with targeted learning standards. Of particular interest was using gaming principles to embed standards-based science concepts in the curricular experience without undermining the situative embodiment central to our design philosophy. In Study One reported here, the same first-cycle elementary teacher used the refined second-cycle curriculum, again with high-ability fourth graders. We then analyzed qualitative and quantitative data on student participation and performance to further refine our theory and revise the curriculum. In Study Two, another teacher implemented a further refined second-cycle curriculum with lower achieving fourth graders, including several students labeled as having special needs. We use the design trajectory and results to illustrate and warrant the creation of a situationally embodied curriculum that supports the learning of specific disciplinary formalisms. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed, 91:750–782, 2007

Barab, S., Zuiker, S., Warren, S., Hickey, D., Ingram-Goble, A., Kwon, E.-J., Kouper, I. and Herring, S. C. (2007), Situationally embodied curriculum: Relating formalisms and contexts. Science Education, 91: 750–782. doi: 10.1002/sce.20217
This paper reports on a study that employed metacognition and social cognition theoretical frameworks to explore and interpret students' views of their cognitive roles and the nature of the mechanisms that they considered influenced and mediated their learning within small group contexts. An instrumental interpretive case study methodology was used to capture students' descriptive accounts of their Year 11 Biology learning experiences, as conveyed through their recollections and reflections concerning their interactions and roles, perceptions of the learning task, and their learning strategies that they considered to be manifest during a field trip visit to a nature center. We conclude that, even among apparently highly collegial student groups, deemed by their teacher to be effective learning groups, and constituted in ways consistent with the literature on effective collaborative group work, there existed metasocial metacognitive factors that influenced and shaped cognition in ways counterproductive to the effective learning of science. This study reveals the existence of metacognitive knowledge and processes, common among students and related to their views of what is appropriate thinking and behavior within small groups, which inform collective and individual task actions. We contend that students are highly aware of their social status within groups and of their individual group's social conditions and that this awareness affects cognition and behavior. Moreover, they monitor these conditions and employ strategies that simultaneously service both the task and social relationships and their learning processes to varying extents depending on individual and group factors. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93: 511–534, 2009

Anderson, D., Thomas, G. P. and Nashon, S. M. (2009), Social barriers to meaningful engagement in biology field trip group work. Science Education, 93: 511–534. doi: 10.1002/sce.20304
This paper reviews the significant sociocultural literatures on science studies, cultural diversity, and sustainability science to develop theoretical perspectives for science education more suitable to the challenges of contemporaneity. While the influences of science studies and cultural diversity are not uncommon within the science education literature on innovation, the difference here is the inclusion of the newer field of sustainability science. These threads are drawn are together to help formulate a view of science education that contributes to the ongoing discussion of what it could be in the 21st century. Finally, a science unit in a preservice teacher education course is then described, which aims to engage, inform, and empower beginning teachers in ways that tackle the challenges of contemporaneity. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:165–181, 2008

Carter, L. (2008), Sociocultural influences on science education: Innovation for contemporary times. Science Education, 92: 165–181. doi: 10.1002/sce.20228
One aspect of scientific inquiry that appears to be particularly challenging to learn is how explanatory models are developed and used in science. It is even more challenging to learn to teach through methods that engage young students in building and using explanatory models. In part, this is because to do so requires that teachers make real-time instructional decisions in response to the ideas that students articulate. In this paper I present an example of a teacher who participated in a series of activities during a professional development course that guided her and her colleagues through the process of developing and revising an explanatory model of magnetic phenomenon. She subsequently transformed this series of activities to use with her elementary school students. Contrasting the series of activities in the elementary classroom to the corresponding professional development activities revealed improvisational instructional acts and shed light on aspects of the classroom context that necessitated and facilitated improvisation. In particular, this paper highlights the multiple pedagogical and disciplinary structures that teachers implicitly chose among when improvising. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:142–163, 2010

Harlow, D. B. (2010), Structures and improvisation for inquiry-based science instruction: A teacher's adaptation of a model of magnetism activity. Science Education, 94: 142–163. doi: 10.1002/sce.20348
This study examined both student and school predictors of science achievement as measured by a high-stakes state test. The study involved 23,854 fifth-grade students from 198 elementary schools in a large urban school district with a diverse student population. Multilevel modeling was conducted to examine both student and school predictors simultaneously. The study examined three sets of variables: (a) student characteristics, (b) the impact of reading and mathematics achievement on science achievement with English language learners, and (c) school characteristics. The results add new insights to the existing literature while also confirming the known results. The study contributes to the literature by addressing a high-stakes science test (compared to national and international databases), using diverse student groups including English language learners in urban settings, examining elementary school science (compared to middle and high school science), and using a multilevel framework (compared to a single predictor). © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:937–962, 2010

Maerten-Rivera, J., Myers, N., Lee, O. and Penfield, R. (2010), Student and school predictors of high-stakes assessment in science. Science Education, 94: 937–962. doi: 10.1002/sce.20408
The present article scrutinizes the manner with which a group of three postsecondary students (in Quebec, Canada) describe the social actors concerned by the controversy surrounding cellular telephones. The study was conducted on the basis of an ethnographic approach. Participant observation was performed by the researcher for 3 hours during each of 15 weeks. The theoretical framework developed by Callon, Lascoumes, and Barthe (2001) was drawn on to show how the group assigns roles relating to public representation and the production of legitimate knowledges; in particular, it assigns to scientists the role of conducting research; to government the roles of building citizens' awareness about the risks related to cellular telephone use, protecting users, and guiding the conduct of the cellular telephone industry; and to citizens the roles of becoming/staying informed and of making limited use of cellular telephones. The study reported here also illustrates that, in the process, the group airs their views concerning the terms best suited to defining the subject of the controversy, constituting research “collectives,” and disseminating knowledge. One main conclusion is that science education research projects drawing on the contributions of Callon et al. (2001) hold out considerable promise in terms of relevance and fruitfulness. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:543–559, 2008

Pouliot, C. (2008), Students' inventory of social actors concerned by the controversy surrounding cellular telephones: A case study. Science Education, 92: 543–559. doi: 10.1002/sce.20274
We investigated general chemistry students' intuitive ideas about the expected properties of the products of a chemical reaction. In particular, we analyzed college chemistry students' predictions about the color, smell, and taste of the products of chemical reactions represented at the molecular level. The study was designed to explore the extent to which novice learners intuitively use an additive framework to predict the properties of the product, rather than an approach that recognizes the emergent nature of the properties of chemical compounds. To this end, we used a mixed-methods research approach based on answers to multiple-choice questions and individual interviews with students enrolled in the first year of an introductory general chemistry course for science and engineering majors. Our results indicate that most students at this level rely on an additive heuristic to predict the properties of chemical compounds, overlooking the possibility of emergent properties resulting from the interaction of the atoms that compose the system. Chemistry instructors and chemical educators thus need to intentionally design learning opportunities for students to recognize and differentiate additive and emergent properties in a variety of contexts. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci. Ed92:96–114, 2008

Talanquer, V. (2008), Students' predictions about the sensory properties of chemical compounds: Additive versus emergent frameworks. Science Education, 92: 96–114. doi: 10.1002/sce.20235
Decision making about socioscientific issues is an important aspect of modern science education worldwide. Among the many topics that represent socioscientific issues, issues relating to the sustainable development of our environment are one crucial topic. However, difficulties exist with respect to the assessment of teaching outcomes related to these issues. This paper presents results from two quantitative studies that were conducted to develop a test instrument that measures students' use of decision-making strategies in situations relating to sustainable development. Data were analyzed using the Rasch partial credit model. Analyses concerning reliability and validity showed that the developed instrument provides an adequate measure of students' use of decision-making strategies. Analyses indicated that the test instrument can be used among different age groups and that decision-making competence increases with respect to years of education. Most elaborate strategies were characterized by the use of trade-offs, the ability to weigh decision criteria, and the ability to reflect on the structure of decision-making processes. In contrast, baselevel strategies were characterized by the use of cutoffs and an absence of elaborate metareflection. The results provide a valuable starting point for analyzing and fostering students' decision-making competence in the science classroom. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:230–258, 2010

Eggert, S. and Bögeholz, S. (2010), Students' use of decision-making strategies with regard to socioscientific issues: An application of the Rasch partial credit model. Science Education, 94: 230–258. doi: 10.1002/sce.20358
Tan, E. (2010), Swimming against the tide: African American girls and science education. Science Education, 94: 198–200. doi: 10.1002/sce.20367
Framed by sociocultural theory, the purpose of the study was to understand the cultural tools used by science teachers when leaning to mentor and how tool use may lead to the construction of new understandings about mentoring. The participants were 37 experienced teachers enrolled in a federally funded science-specific mentor preparation program. Data took the form of interview transcripts, electronic bulletin board postings, and written cases. Program participants were found to use a range of tools to mediate their thinking about science teacher mentoring. Analysis of data revealed that the participants used the discourse of science teaching as well as such tools as classroom observation strategies and interpersonal mentoring approaches, to mediate their thinking about mentoring. The participants' tools also included images that mediated their responses to specific mentoring challenges and dilemmas that highlighted for them contradictions in their thinking about mentoring. The cultural tools used by the science teachers when learning to mentor provide insight into how they think about science teacher mentoring and the nature of the professional learning experiences needed to enable them to develop as mentors. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:1072–1091, 2010

Koballa, T. R., Kittleson, J., Bradbury, L. U. and Dias, M. J. (2010), Teacher thinking associated with science-specific mentor preparation. Science Education, 94: 1072–1091. doi: 10.1002/sce.20400
As professional learning communities (PLCs) are proliferating as a form of teacher professional development, it is important to understand what “PLC work” is and how it impacts teacher learning. This article reports on secondary science and mathematics teachers' participation in PLCs and engagement in collaborative inquiry. The PLC provided a structure for coming together; their inquiry questions focused their attention on gaps between a shared vision for student learning and student achievement. Qualitative data from three in-depth cases are analyzed in three categories: (1) collective activities, (2) questions raised, and (3) knowledge generated. The cases show different trajectories of teachers' PLC work and reveal the difficulties teachers had in asking critical questions about their practices. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93: 548–580, 2009

Nelson, T. H. (2009), Teachers' collaborative inquiry and professional growth: Should we be optimistic?. Science Education, 93: 548–580. doi: 10.1002/sce.20302
Research about the relationship between teachers' scientific epistemological views (SEVs) and science instruction is often an important issue for many science educators. This study, by collecting research data from four Taiwanese science teachers, their students, and classroom observations, was carried out to examine the coherences between teachers' SEVs and their (1) teaching beliefs, (2) instructional practices, (3) students' SEVs, and (4) students' perceptions toward actual science learning environments. The findings suggested adequate coherences between teachers' SEVs and their teaching beliefs as well as instructional practices. The teachers with relatively positivist-aligned SEVs tended to draw attention to students' science scores in tests and allocate more instructional time on teacher-directed lectures, tutorial problem practices, or in-class examinations, implying a more passive or rote perspective about learning science. In contrast, teachers with constructivist-oriented SEVs tended to focus on student understanding and application of scientific concepts and they adopted more time on student inquiry activities or interactive discussion. These findings are quite consistent with the results about the coherence between teachers' SEVs and students' perceptions toward science learning environments, suggesting that the constructivist-oriented SEVs appeared to foster the creation of more constructivist-oriented science learning environments. Finally, although this study provided some evidence that teachers' SEVs were likely related to their students' SEVs, the teachers' SEVs and those of their students were not obviously coherent. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:222–243, 2007

Tsai, C.-C. (2007), Teachers' scientific epistemological views: The coherence with instruction and students' views. Science Education, 91: 222–243. doi: 10.1002/sce.20175
The role of the teacher is essential for students' successful engagement in scientific inquiry practices. This study focuses on teachers' use of an 8-week chemistry curriculum that explicitly supports students in one particular inquiry practice, the construction of scientific arguments to explain phenomena in which students justify their claims using evidence and reasoning. Participants included 6 teachers and 568 students. Videotapes, teacher questionnaires, and student pre- and posttests were analyzed to develop case studies that characterized the support the teachers provided their students for scientific argumentation and subsequent student learning. Patterns from the case studies suggest that one particular instructional practice, the way teachers defined scientific argumentation, characterized teachers' support and influenced the other practices they used in their classrooms. In some cases, the teachers' definitions of scientific argumentation did not align with the intended learning goal in the curriculum materials. These teachers' greater simplification of this complex inquiry practice resulted in decreased learning gains in terms of students' ability to write scientific arguments to explain phenomena using appropriate evidence and reasoning. Educative curriculum materials can have a positive impact on teachers' classroom support for scientific argumentation, but how the teachers use these materials influences student learning. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93: 233–268, 2009

McNeill, K. L. (2009), Teachers' use of curriculum to support students in writing scientific arguments to explain phenomena. Science Education, 93: 233–268. doi: 10.1002/sce.20294
The concept of science as argument, and the view that engaging in scientific argumentation should play a key role in science education, has become widely endorsed. The case is made here that this objective will be enhanced by broad understanding of the nature of argument skills and their directions and patterns of development. A line of research directed to this goal is described. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:810–824, 2010

Kuhn, D. (2010), Teaching and learning science as argument. Science Education, 94: 810–824. doi: 10.1002/sce.20395
Museum educators have a longstanding presence in museums and play a significant role in the institutions' educational agenda. However, research on field trips to science museums has predominantly explored teachers' and students' perspectives with little acknowledgment of the museum educators who develop and implement the educational programs the students experience. This study sought to describe instruction undertaken in, and goals driving, science museums' lessons through observations of museum educators followed by conversations with them immediately afterwards. Findings showed the ways in which educators adapted their preplanned lessons to the students' interests, needs, and understanding by manipulating the sequence and timing. The data revealed that, contrary to depictions in the research literature of teaching in museums as didactic and lecture oriented, there was creativity, complexity, and skills involved in teaching science in museums. Finally, the educators' teaching actions were predominantly influenced by their affective goals to nurture interests in science and learning. Although their lessons were ephemeral experiences, these educators operated from a perspective, which regarded a school field trip to the science museum, not as a one-time event, but as part of a continuum of visiting such institutions well beyond school and childhood. These findings have implications for the pedagogical practices employed by museum educators, and the relationship between teachers and educators during school field trips, which are discussed. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:278–297, 2007

Tran, L. U. (2007), Teaching science in museums: The pedagogy and goals of museum educators. Science Education, 91: 278–297. doi: 10.1002/sce.20193
Teaching the theory of evolution in classrooms takes place in a social, intellectual, and pedagogical context which must be considered with care if students are to receive a complete and authentic education. In addition to the science education literature on this topic, attention is directed to the expanding literature on science and religion, as well as the writing on religion and education. With attention to the contentious social context in which the theory of evolution is taught today, as well as the worldviews students bring to the classroom, a case is made for teaching the theory of evolution in a manner that takes account of the questions students bring with them and the broader philosophical considerations that impinge upon their thinking. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:664–677, 2007

Anderson, R. D. (2007), Teaching the theory of evolution in social, intellectual, and pedagogical context. Science Education, 91: 664–677. doi: 10.1002/sce.20204
Kamen, M. (2008), Teaching to learn: A view from the field. Science Education, 92: 188–190. doi: 10.1002/sce.20250
Researchers and practitioners have attempted to identify technologies that support students' scientific understanding, activities and support practices that facilitate students' inquiry processes, and methods to sustain technology-enhanced innovations in everyday science classrooms. The purpose of this paper is to examine the findings and implications of research on science inquiry tools on classroom teaching and learning practices. We summarize research on inquiry tools and present a framework for teaching and learning in technology-enhanced, inquiry-based science classes. In the framework, three dimensions are discussed: the macrocontext (systemic reform and educational standards), the teachers' community (physical or virtual context, where teachers share expertise and mentor each other), and the microcontext (classroom context, where learning and teaching occur). From this pedagogical framework, the interactions among the standards, teachers' community, and classroom contexts are key to exploring the role of technologies. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed, 91:1010–1030, 2007

Kim, M. C., Hannafin, M. J. and Bryan, L. A. (2007), Technology-enhanced inquiry tools in science education: An emerging pedagogical framework for classroom practice. Science Education, 91: 1010–1030. doi: 10.1002/sce.20219
Hayes, E. (2009), Teen girls and technology: What's the problem, what's the solution?. Science Education, 93: 771–774. doi: 10.1002/sce.20337
At the 1939–1940 New York World's Fair, several thousand boys and girls, all members of a growing national network of high school science and engineering clubs, displayed their science fair projects and conducted live experiments to more than 10 million visitors. Housed in the building sponsored by the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company, their exhibits depicted a wide range of scientific phenomena. They also represented the conflicting values of science educators and industrialists about the societal worth of science education. In some instances, students' projects and laboratory activities prized hands-on learning and aimed to abet widespread rational thinking for democratic citizenship, which reflected the civic priorities of Progressive science educators. In other cases, science was presented as a magical spectacle with consumer applications intended to entertain and inspire the public's confidence in American industry and scientific experts. Ultimately, the corporate sponsorship of the high school science extracurriculum at the World's Fair marked a turning point when the Progressive purposes of science education began to give way to “manpower” and “professionalist” ends that aligned with the nation's economic and military imperatives. This historical episode also anticipated recent proposals to reform science education in the United States and ideas about scientific learning in museum settings. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:892–914, 2009

Terzian, S. G. (2009), The 1939–1940 New York World's Fair and the transformation of the American science extracurriculum. Science Education, 93: 892–914. doi: 10.1002/sce.20329
In this paper, we introduce the Exploratory Behavior Scale (EBS), a quantitative measure of young children's interactivity. More specifically, the EBS is developed from the psychological literature on exploration and play and measures the extent to which preschoolers explore their physical environment. A practical application of the EBS in a science museum is given. The described study was directed at optimizing parent guidance to improve preschoolers' exploration of exhibits in science center NEMO. In Experiment 1, we investigated which adult coaching style resulted in the highest level of exploratory behavior at two exhibits. In Experiment 2, we investigated whether informing parents about an effective way of coaching influenced preschoolers' exploratory behavior at two exhibits. The results of the study demonstrate the added value of the EBS in visitor behavior research: compared to existing global measures of visitor interactivity; the EBS adds information about the quality of the hands-on behavior. Compared to existing detailed measures of visitor interactivity, the EBS has the advantage of being applicable in different museum settings and enabling comparisons between exhibits or exhibitions. In addition, the EBS allows for quantification of unanticipated behavior. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:794–809, 2010

Van Schijndel, T. J. P., Franse, R. K. and Raijmakers, M. E. J. (2010), The Exploratory Behavior Scale: Assessing young visitors' hands-on behavior in science museums. Science Education, 94: 794–809. doi: 10.1002/sce.20394
This paper aims to further articulate multicultural science education scholarship. In particular, it explores the notions of borders and border epistemologies as intellectual resources to think again about the challenges of science education in the global world that demand more sophisticated concepts to unravel some of its complexities. It responds in part to Osborne's (2007) call for more “armchair science education” to “develop better theories about our goals and values” (p. 11). Borders and border spaces reconceptualize and extend the view of borders typically presented within the literature as unproblematic lines between cultures and knowledges that need to be crossed. The constructs of border epistemologies introduce to science education the work of cultural theorists, Boaventura de Sousa Santos and Walter Mignolo. Collectively, their scholarship helps to theorize alternative epistemologies from the Global South that argue social and political justice must be premised within epistemological justice. I finish by problematizing some of these ideas for ongoing thinking around multicultural approaches to science education. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:428–447, 2010

Carter, L. (2010), The armchair at the borders: The “messy” ideas of borders and border epistemologies within multicultural science education scholarship. Science Education, 94: 428–447. doi: 10.1002/sce.20323
Settlage, J. (2008), The canon: A whirligig tour of the beautiful basics of science. Science Education, 92: 182–185. doi: 10.1002/sce.20249
Oliver, J. S. (2009), The culture of science education: Its history in person. Science Education, 93: 386–388. doi: 10.1002/sce.20326
The purpose of this study was to understand one case of undergraduate inquiry-based instruction through the words and actions of students and instructors. The data sources included fieldnotes from 16 of 29 classes, two sets of student and instructor interviews (beginning and end of the semester), and a collection of artifacts, such as the laboratory manual, lecture handouts, and the course syllabus. The participants for this study included four faculty instructors and two purposively selected student groups, totaling eight students. We found the instructors' two course goals, (a) teaching students how scientists do science and (b) using an interdisciplinary approach to develop students' content knowledge of the big ideas in science, were consistent with our observations and the students' descriptions of their experience in the course. However, we observed, and the students also noted, an important feature of the course that the instructors did not describe as a course goal was its reliance on the social nature of learning. This telling case demonstrates that inquiry-based instruction is achievable in undergraduate science education. Implications are discussed for college science instructors interested in inquiry teaching. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:591–607, 2008

Park Rogers, M. A. and Abell, S. K. (2008), The design, enactment, and experience of inquiry-based instruction in undergraduate science education: A case study. Science Education, 92: 591–607. doi: 10.1002/sce.20247
Curriculum materials are a crucial tool with which teachers engage in teaching practice. For preservice teachers to learn to use science curriculum materials in productive ways, they must develop a conception of themselves as elementary teachers in which the use of science curriculum materials is a valued dimension of science-teaching practice. We define those dimensions of teachers' professional role identities concerned with the use of curriculum materials as curricular role identity. This mixed-methods study examines preservice elementary teachers' development of curricular role identity for science teaching through their use of science curriculum materials. Forty-seven preservice elementary teachers in two sections of an elementary science methods course were studied over the course of one semester. Data sources include survey results from preservice teachers in both course sections as well as interviews, observations, and course artifacts from preservice teachers studied in-depth. Results suggest preservice teachers articulate important differences between their own and more experienced elementary teachers' curricular role identity for science teaching and make progress toward appropriating the latter. Supporting them to do so requires emphasizing interactions with science curriculum materials as part of teacher education and providing classroom-based experiences through which they can put their developing curricular role identities into action. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:909–940, 2008

Forbes, C. T. and Davis, E. A. (2008), The development of preservice elementary teachers' curricular role identity for science teaching. Science Education, 92: 909–940. doi: 10.1002/sce.20265
Auditory forms of nonpersonal communication have rarely been evaluated in informal settings like parks and museums. This study evaluated the effect of an interpretive audio tour on visitor knowledge and social behavior at Carlsbad Caverns National Park. A cross-sectional pretest/posttest quasi-experimental design compared the responses of audio tour users (n = 123) and nonusers (n = 131) on several knowledge questions. Observations (n = 700) conducted at seven sites within the caverns documented sign reading, time spent listening to the audio, within group conversation, and other social behaviors for a different sample of visitors. Pretested tour users and nonusers did not differ in visitor characteristics, knowledge, or attitude variables, suggesting the two populations were similar. On a 12-item knowledge quiz, tour users' scores increased from 5.7 to 10.3, and nonusers' scores increased from 6.2 to 8.4. Most visitors were able to identify some of the park's major messages when presented with a multiple-choice question, but more audio users than nonusers identified resource preservation as a primary message in an open-ended question. Based on observations, audio tour users and nonusers did not differ substantially in their interactions with other members of their group or in their reading of interpretive signs in the cave. Audio tour users had positive reactions to the tour, and these reactions, coupled with the positive learning outcomes and negligible effects on social interaction, suggest that audio tours can be an effective communication medium in informal educational settings. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:260–277, 2007

Novey, L. T. and Hall, T. E. (2007), The effect of audio tours on learning and social interaction: An evaluation at Carlsbad Caverns National Park. Science Education, 91: 260–277. doi: 10.1002/sce.20184
Project-based science (PBS) curricula have project- and inquiry-based aspects that leverage the strengths of urban students from ethnic and racial groups underrepresented in science careers, potentially impacting positively these students' science achievement and attitudes and thus their college and career plans. We aimed to determine the extent to which a PBS curriculum would show this. We provided professional development to bolster urban teachers' science content knowledge (CK) and science pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) to observe the maximal impact of the PBS curriculum. We found that students' science achievement improved with the PBS curriculum, but that their attitudes toward science and plans to pursue science did not. Increases in teachers' CK and PCK with the professional development correlated with the improvements in student science achievement but did not correlate with improvements in student science attitudes or plans. However, the frequency of teachers' use of specific inquiry-based activities did correlate with improvements in students' science attitudes and plans. In sum, the extent of the success of a PBS curriculum with students from groups underrepresented in science careers appears to be dependent on elements of both teacher knowledge (CK and PCK) and teachers' frequency of use of inquiry-based activities that are consistent with culturally relevant pedagogical practices. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:855–887, 2010

Kanter, D. E. and Konstantopoulos, S. (2010), The impact of a project-based science curriculum on minority student achievement, attitudes, and careers: The effects of teacher content and pedagogical content knowledge and inquiry-based practices. Science Education, 94: 855–887. doi: 10.1002/sce.20391
This study examines three questions about the impact of collaboration during scientific argumentation. First, do groups craft better arguments than individuals? Second, to what degree do individuals adopt and internalize the arguments crafted by their group? Third, do individuals who work in groups learn more from their experiences than individuals who work on their own? To examine these questions, 168 high school chemistry students were randomly assigned, using a matched pair design to collaborative or individual argumentation conditions. Students in both treatment conditions first completed a task that required them to produce an argument articulating and justifying an explanation for a discrepant event. The students then completed mastery and transfer problems on their own. The results of this study indicate that (a) groups of students did not produce better arguments than students who worked alone, (b) a substantial proportion of the students adopted at least some elements of their group's argument, and (c) students from the collaborative condition demonstrated superior performance on the mastery and transfer problems. These observations indicate that collaboration was beneficial for individual learning but not for initial performance on the task. The study concludes with a discussion of these observations and recommendations for future research. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93: 448–484, 2009

Sampson, V. and Clark, D. (2009), The impact of collaboration on the outcomes of scientific argumentation. Science Education, 93: 448–484. doi: 10.1002/sce.20306
In this study, we investigated whether the understanding of the particulate nature of matter by students was improved by allowing them to design and evaluate molecular animations of chemical phenomena. We developed Chemation, a learner-centered animation tool, to allow seventh-grade students to construct flipbook-like simple animations to show molecular models and dynamic processes. Eight classes comprising 271 students were randomly assigned to three treatments in which students used Chemation to (1) design, interpret, and evaluate animations, (2) only design and interpret animations, or (3) only view and interpret teacher-made animations. We employed 2-factor analysis of covariance and calculated effect sizes to examine the impact of the three treatments on student posttest performances and on student-generated animations and interpretations during class. We used the pretest data as a covariate to reduce a potential bias related to students' prior knowledge on their learning outcomes. The results indicate that designing animations coupled with peer evaluation is effective at improving student learning with instructional animation. On the other hand, the efficacy of allowing students to only design animations without peer evaluation is questionable compared with allowing students to view animations. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:73–94, 2010

Chang, H.-Y., Quintana, C. and Krajcik, J. S. (2010), The impact of designing and evaluating molecular animations on how well middle school students understand the particulate nature of matter. Science Education, 94: 73–94. doi: 10.1002/sce.20352
Making assumptions is an important step in solving many real-world problems. This study investigated whether participants who could solve well-defined physics problems could also solve a real-world physics problem that involved the need to make assumptions. The participants, who all had at least a BA in physics, were videotaped “thinking aloud” while solving three well-defined and one real-world problem and then interviewed about the problem-solving process. All the problems dealt with the same scientific content. The recordings were analyzed to identify similarities and differences in the ways the problems were solved and to see which steps in the solution of the problems posed the greatest cognitive difficulty for each participant. Results indicate that (a) the process of making the constraining assumptions needed to convert the real-world problem into a well-defined one was the most difficult step for all, and (b) only the participants who had prior experience making constraining assumptions were able to make the needed assumptions and solve the real-world problem. These findings suggest a need to support physics students develop this important skill. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:86–108, 2009

Fortus, D. (2009), The importance of learning to make assumptions. Science Education, 93: 86–108. doi: 10.1002/sce.20295
Previous research has indicated that the use of multiple representations with macroscopic and molecular features can improve conceptual understanding; however, the influence of prior knowledge of the domain cannot be overlooked. Using eye-tracking technology and sequential analysis, this study investigated how high school students (n = 54) with different levels of prior knowledge transitioned among the macroscopic and molecular representations of the selected cell transport graphics. The results indicated that high prior knowledge students transitioned more frequently between the molecular representations, whereas low prior knowledge students transitioned more frequently between the macroscopic representations. These findings suggest that students with high prior knowledge distributed their visual attention on conceptually relevant features, whereas low prior knowledge students focused on surface features. In addition, low prior knowledge students transitioned more frequently between macroscopic and molecular representations, suggesting that these students were experiencing more difficulty as they were coordinating the representations. Because these students were using surface features to create linkages between the representations, they were unable to understand the underlying themes. More research on the differences in the distribution of visual attention among learners can provide further insight as to the difficulties low prior knowledge students face when interpreting multiple representations. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:848–867, 2008

Cook, M., Wiebe, E. N. and Carter, G. (2008), The influence of prior knowledge on viewing and interpreting graphics with macroscopic and molecular representations. Science Education, 92: 848–867. doi: 10.1002/sce.20262
Policy has been a much neglected area for research in science education. In their neglect of policy studies, researchers have maintained an ongoing naivete about the politics of science education. In doing so, they often overestimate the implications of their research findings about practice and ignore the interplay between the stakeholders beyond and in-school who determine the nature of the curriculum for science education and its enacted character. Policies for education (and science education in particular) always involve authority and values, both of which raise sets of fascinating questions for research. The location of authority for science education differs across educational systems in ways that affect the role teachers are expected to play. Policies very often value some groups in society over others, as the long history of attempts to provide science for all students testifies. As research on teaching/learning science identifies pedagogies that have widespread effectiveness, the policy issue of mandating these becomes important. Illustrations of successful policy to practice suggest that establishing conditions that will facilitate the intended implementation is critically important. The responsibility of researchers for critiquing and establishing policy for improving the practice of science education is discussed, together with the role research associations could play if they are to claim their place as key stakeholders in science education. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:1076–1095, 2009

Fensham, P. J. (2009), The link between policy and practice in science education: The role of research. Science Education, 93: 1076–1095. doi: 10.1002/sce.20349
Weinstein, M. (2010), The materiality of learning: Technology and knowledge in educational practice. Science Education, 94: 1123–1125. doi: 10.1002/sce.20406
We investigated how an induction program supported and constrained beginning teachers' efforts to teach science or mathematics in equitable and effective ways. We focused our investigation on the teaching and learning of equitable instructional practices; we conceived of such practices as attention to students' experiences, instruction for English learners, differentiation, and reform-minded science or mathematics strategies. During the 2005–2006 and 2006–2007 academic years, we examined the experiences of two beginning secondary teachers (one in science and one in mathematics) enrolled in a state-mandated, K-12 induction program. We conducted multiple interviews with our beginning teachers, their experienced mentors, and induction professionals; videotaped all 21 induction seminars and 4 series of lessons for each beginning teacher; and examined each teacher's 12 teaching performance assessment products. Qualitative analysis of data made visible the successes and struggles in using a K-12 induction program to promote equitable science and mathematics instruction. Beginning teachers saw their induction program as contributing little to their learning to teach toward equity; they pointed to their previous teacher education experiences and current school communities as more powerful forces in shaping the ways they taught science or mathematics to all students. We close with recommendations for other teacher educators and induction professionals. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:164–195, 2010

Bianchini, J. A. and Brenner, M. E. (2010), The role of induction in learning to teach toward equity: A study of beginning science and mathematics teachers. Science Education, 94: 164–195. doi: 10.1002/sce.20353
The characterization of students' cognitive biases is of central importance in the development of curriculum and teaching strategies that better support student learning in science. In particular, the identification of shortcut reasoning procedures (heuristics) used by students to reduce cognitive load can help us devise strategies to foster the development of more analytical ways of thinking. The central goal of this study was thus to investigate the reasoning heuristics used by undergraduate chemistry students when solving a traditional academic task (ranking chemical substances based on the relative value of a physical or chemical property). For this purpose, a mixed-methods research study was completed based on quantitative results collected using a ranking-task questionnaire and qualitative data gathered through semistructured interviews. Our results revealed that many study participants relied frequently on one or more of the following heuristics to make their decisions: recognition, representativeness, one-reason decision making, and arbitrary trend. These heuristics allowed students to generate answers in the absence of requisite knowledge; unfortunately, they often led students astray. Our results suggest the need to create more opportunities for college chemistry students to monitor their thinking, develop and apply analytical ways of reasoning, and evaluate the effectiveness of shortcut reasoning procedures in different contexts. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:963–984, 2010

Maeyer, J. and Talanquer, V. (2010), The role of intuitive heuristics in students' thinking: Ranking chemical substances. Science Education, 94: 963–984. doi: 10.1002/sce.20397
This article is about the role of metaphor in scientific knowledge formation and reasoning. These issues are studied by means of an example of the theory of evolution through natural selection. The premise is that the theory of evolution contains a set of problems regarding metaphor. A second premise is that these problems have to be handled in one way or another when trying to learn, explain, or discuss the theory. How metaphor plays a role in Darwin's writings is analyzed through examples taken from On the Origin of Species. Which metaphors are used by Darwin and which problems do they solve and raise, respectively? It is shown how Darwin uses a variety of metaphors, and that he grapples with this issue. The findings are discussed in terms of the implications for teaching evolutionary theory. Some inherent difficulties in learning the theory of evolution, and more generally abstract complex scientific knowledge, are discussed. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93: 535–547, 2009

Pramling, N. (2009), The role of metaphor in Darwin and the implications for teaching evolution. Science Education, 93: 535–547. doi: 10.1002/sce.20319
Beyler, R. H. (2010), The scientific life: A moral history of a late modern vocation. Science Education, 94: 388–390. doi: 10.1002/sce.20372
Typically, the scientific method in science classrooms takes the form of discrete, ordered steps meant to guide students' inquiry. In this paper, we examine how focusing on the scientific method as discrete steps affects students' inquiry and teachers' perceptions thereof. To do so, we study a ninth-grade environmental science class in which students first reviewed a typical version of the scientific method, then brainstormed about which sites on school grounds could be good earthworm habitats and how to test their ideas. Our discourse analysis explores the dynamics between the “steps” of the scientific method and students' engagement in more authentic scientific inquiry. We argue that focusing on the scientific method as discrete steps can distract students from their ongoing, productive inquiry and can also draw teachers' attention away from students' productive inquiry. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:29–47, 2010

Tang, X., Coffey, J. E., Elby, A. and Levin, D. M. (2010), The scientific method and scientific inquiry: Tensions in teaching and learning. Science Education, 94: 29–47. doi: 10.1002/sce.20366
What effects do different setups of museum exhibits have on visitors' conversations and interactions? The study reported here is an investigation of the role that labels and associated materials play in visitors' conversations and interactions at a heat camera exhibit. After we introduced a label to help visitors explore the insulating properties of clothing, we found a dramatic shift in the kinds of activities and participation structures of visitors. Not only were visitors, as expected, discussing why clothing was warm, but they were doing so in a fashion more consistent with formal education than the typically more collaborative conversations seen in informal learning environments. Overall, our analyses reveal that labels and activities presented serve to frame both the activities that visitors engage in and the types of conversations that ensue and that this has deep influences on visitors' experiences at the exhibit. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:161–184, 2009

Atkins, L. J., Velez, L., Goudy, D. and Dunbar, K. N. (2009), The unintended effects of interactive objects and labels in the science museum. Science Education, 93: 161–184. doi: 10.1002/sce.20291
Few studies have focused on understanding how teaching and learning in classrooms are mediated by other dimensions of the organizational systems of which education is an integral part. Our 7-year ethnographic study of an urban high school shows how time and temporality constitute key practical and theoretical resources to the actors in the cultural organization of schools, a product of transactions involving individuals and artifacts that traverse multiple cultural fields, each with its own distinctive structures. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:115–140, 2008

Roth, W.-M., Tobin, K. and Ritchie, S. M. (2008), Time and temporality as mediators of science learning. Science Education, 92: 115–140. doi: 10.1002/sce.20238
Kilpatrick, J. (2009), Tools of American mathematics teaching, 1800–2000. Science Education, 93: 581–583. doi: 10.1002/sce.20335
Horibe, S. (2010), Towards scientific literacy: A teachers' guide to the history, philosophy and sociology of science. Science Education, 94: 932–934. doi: 10.1002/sce.20410
For many decades, science educators have asked, “In what ways should learning the content of traditional subjects serve as the means to more general ends, such as understanding the nature of science or the processes of scientific inquiry?” Acceptance of these ends reduces the role of disciplinary context; the “Footprints Puzzle” and Oregon's “Inquiry Scoring Guide” illustrate this point. In the Footprints Puzzle, students are challenged to distinguish observations from inferences to learn about the nature of science or the culture of science. Oregon's Inquiry Scoring Guide separates content knowledge from inquiry skills. Given long-standing discredit of “the” scientific method, modern views emphasize the diversity of inquiry methods and explanatory ideals across disciplines. Paleontologists, for example, reconstruct the behavior of extinct beasts from fossil footprints using methods of inquiry responsive to this aim. Figuring out dinosaur locomotion depends upon making analogies to the limb structure and behavior of extant species. The history of the Footprints Puzzle demonstrates that an enduring adherence to “a process approach” obscures how conceptualization intertwines with methodology. A discipline's concepts themselves, such as “extinction” and “geologic time,” function as tools of inquiry in distinctive and productive ways. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:1092–1122, 2010

Ault, C. R. and Dodick, J. (2010), Tracking the Footprints Puzzle: The problematic persistence of science-as-process in teaching the nature and culture of science. Science Education, 94: 1092–1122. doi: 10.1002/sce.20398
In the science education research literature, it often appears to be assumed that students “possess” more or less stable “images of science” that directly correspond to their experiences with scientific practice in science curricula. From cultural-historical and sociocultural perspectives, this assumption is problematic because scientific practices are collective human activities and are therefore neither identical with students' experiences nor with the accounts of these experiences that students make available to researchers. “Students' images of science” are therefore translated from (rather than directly correspond to) scientific practices. Drawing on data collected during and after preuniversity biology students' internships in a scientific laboratory, we exemplify the role of these translations in the production of “students' images of science.” A coarse-grained analysis based on existing research showed our data to be comparable with earlier studies on “students' images of science.” A fine-grained analysis shows how “students' images of science” were coproduced along a trajectory of translations that was determined by the use of particular actions and tools, and a particular division of labor in scientific practice. We propose to reconceptualize “students' images of science” as particular coproductions at a given point in time. The methodological and educational implications of this proposal are discussed. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:611–634, 2009

van Eijck, M., Hsu, P.-L. and Roth, W.-M. (2009), Translations of scientific practice to “students' images of science”. Science Education, 93: 611–634. doi: 10.1002/sce.20322
Although beloved of some chemists and physicists, science demonstrations have been criticized for stifling inquiry and assisting teachers to maintain a power differential between themselves and students in the classroom. This interpretive study reports the unexpected positive learning outcomes for urban science students in two chemistry classes that resulted from the use of science demonstrations during a unit on gas laws. Beginning with an examination of science demonstrations as sites of interactions, researchers observed greater student engagement and positive emotional energy, more sophisticated use by students of symbol systems associated with chemistry, and a greater willingness of students to move between description of the phenomena and submicroscopic explanations. Applying sociology of emotions to analysis of classroom conversations and actions, we examine the nature of engagement and propose explanations for the positive effect of science demonstrations on the engagement, emotional energy, and learning of students. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:523–553, 2007

Milne, C. and Otieno, T. (2007), Understanding engagement: Science demonstrations and emotional energy. Science Education, 91: 523–553. doi: 10.1002/sce.20203
Bang, M. (2007), Understanding teacher expertise in primary science: A sociocultural approach. Science Education, 91: 1031–1033. doi: 10.1002/sce.20236
In this study, the evaluation of high school biology, chemistry, and physics teachers by their students is examined according to the gender of the student and the gender of the teacher. Female teachers are rated significantly lower than male teachers by male students in all three disciplines, whereas female students underrate female teachers only in physics. Interestingly, physics is also the field that suffers the greatest lack of females and has been criticized most for its androcentric culture. The gender bias in teacher ratings persists even when accounting for academic performance, classroom experiences, and family support. Furthermore, male and female teachers in each discipline appear equally effective at preparing their students for future science study in college, suggesting that students have a discipline-specific gender bias. Such a bias may negatively impact female students and contribute to the loss of females in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics fields. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93:827–845, 2009

Potvin, G., Hazari, Z., Tai, R. H. and Sadler, P. M. (2009), Unraveling bias from student evaluations of their high school science teachers. Science Education, 93: 827–845. doi: 10.1002/sce.20332
This study examined urban elementary teachers' knowledge and practices in teaching science while supporting English language development of English language learning (ELL) students. As part of a larger 5-year research project in the United States, the study involved 38 third-grade teachers who participated in the first-year implementation of a professional development intervention that consisted of curriculum units and teacher workshops. The study examined four areas—teacher knowledge of science content, teaching science for understanding, teaching science for inquiry, and teacher support for English language development—through a questionnaire, classroom observations, and postobservation interviews. Results indicate that teachers' knowledge and practices were generally within the bounds supported by the intervention; however, such knowledge and practices fell short of the goal of reform-oriented practices. The results provide insights for our ongoing intervention and other similar efforts and contribute to the emerging knowledge base on science and English language and literacy with ELL students. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:733–758, 2008

Lee, O., Lewis, S., Adamson, K., Maerten-Rivera, J. and Secada, W. G. (2008), Urban elementary school teachers' knowledge and practices in teaching science to English language learners. Science Education, 92: 733–758. doi: 10.1002/sce.20255
We focus on the concept of matter and explore how young children in urban schools bridge their spontaneous concepts and everyday experiences with scientific concepts introduced to them by children's literature information books and their teacher. The study shows how material artifacts used in a sorting activity became ideational tools—semiotic devices that promoted children's engagement with science and shaped the classroom discourse, thinking, and transactions. “Ambiguous” objects, such as a baggie with air, shaving cream, a baggie of salt that children were asked to sort, encouraged them to debate ideas about states of matter. Children used four ways of reasoning about states of matter: macroscopic properties, prototypes, everyday functions, and process of elimination. Furthermore, children's meaning making was intertwined with various socio-organizational aspects of inquiry—the ways in which children negotiated their roles within their group and in whole-class sessions, how they worked with each other, how their ideas were heard by others. We discuss how curricular and instructional approaches that do not lead children to one specific answer or way of thinking become catalysts for the creation of discursive spaces, where children and teacher engage in meaning making in the midst of ambiguity and confusion. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci. Ed92:65–95, 2008

Varelas, M., Pappas, C. C., Kane, J. M., Arsenault, A., Hankes, J. and Cowan, B. M. (2008), Urban primary-grade children think and talk science: Curricular and instructional practices that nurture participation and argumentation. Science Education, 92: 65–95. doi: 10.1002/sce.20232
This paper presents results from a study aimed at helping preservice elementary and middle school teachers incorporate model-centered scientific inquiry into their science teaching practices. Specifically, the authors studied the effect of using a guided inquiry and modeling instructional framework (EIMA) and accompanying science methods instruction on preservice elementary teachers' science lesson design skills, scientific model use, and teaching orientations. Analysis of preservice teachers' pre–posttests, classroom artifacts, peer interviews, and lesson plans throughout the semester indicates that the framework successfully built on preservice teachers' prior instructional ideas, and that the majority of preservice teachers learned and used the framework in their lesson plans and teaching. Additionally, analysis of pre–posttest differences indicates an increase in posttest lesson plans that focused on engaging students in scientific inquiry using several kinds of models. Most importantly, the framework and accompanying instruction enabled two thirds of the class to move their teaching orientations away from discovery or didactic approaches toward reform-based approaches such as conceptual change, inquiry, and guided inquiry. Results from this study show that using instructional frameworks such as EIMA can enable preservice teachers to socially construct, synthesize, and apply their knowledge for enacting reform-oriented science teaching approaches such as model-centered scientific inquiry. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:158–186, 2007

Schwarz, C. V. and Gwekwerere, Y. N. (2007), Using a guided inquiry and modeling instructional framework (EIMA) to support preservice K-8 science teaching. Science Education, 91: 158–186. doi: 10.1002/sce.20177
Gooday, G. (2009), Victorian popularizers of science: Designing nature for new audiences. Science Education, 93: 383–385. doi: 10.1002/sce.20327
The purpose of this study was to investigate students' conceptions about watersheds. Specifically: (1) What are students' conceptions of a watershed? and (2) In what ways might students' conceptions vary by grade level and community setting? This study was descriptive in nature and reflected a cross-age design involving the collection of qualitative data from 915 students from the Midwest, United States. These qualitative data were analyzed for their content in an inductive manner, identifying student's conceptions. This content analysis was followed with a statistical analysis to determine the significance in the frequency of the identified student conceptions. Four categories emerged that reflected these students' conceptions. Based on these findings, we make curricular recommendations that build on the students' conceptions, the watershed concept, and the National Research Council (1996) Science Education Standards. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:554–578, 2007

Shepardson, D. P., Wee, B., Priddy, M., Schellenberger, L. and Harbor, J. (2007), What is a watershed? Implications of student conceptions for environmental science education and the National Science Education Standards. Science Education, 91: 554–578. doi: 10.1002/sce.20206
Shapiro, A. R. (2010), Why evolution works (and creationism fails). Science Education, 94: 390–393. doi: 10.1002/sce.20371
Thurs, D. (2008), Why science?. Science Education, 92: 561–563. doi: 10.1002/sce.20280
/***
|''Name:''|zh-HantTranslationPlugin|
|''Description:''|Translation of TiddlyWiki into Traditional Chinese|
|''Source:''|http://tiddlywiki-zh.googlecode.com/svn/trunk/|
|''Subversion:''|http://svn.tiddlywiki.org/Trunk/association/locales/core/zh-Hant/locale.zh-Hant.js|
|''Author:''|BramChen (bram.chen (at) gmail (dot) com)|
|''Version:''|2.6|
|''Date:''|Oct 13, 2009|
|''Comments:''|Please make comments at http://groups.google.com/group/TiddlyWiki-zh/|
|''License:''|[[Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 License|http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/]]|
|''~CoreVersion:''|2.4.1|
***/

//{{{
// --
// -- Translateable strings
// --

// Strings in "double quotes" should be translated; strings in 'single quotes' should be left alone

config.locale = 'zh-Hant'; // W3C language tag
config.options.txtFileSystemCharSet = 'BIG5';

if (config.options.txtUserName == 'YourName' || !config.options.txtUserName) // do not translate this line, but do translate the next line
	merge(config.options,{txtUserName: "YourName"});

merge(config.tasks,{
	save: {text: "儲存", tooltip: "儲存變更至此 TiddlyWiki", action: saveChanges},
	sync: {text: "同步", tooltip: "將你的資料內容與外部伺服器與檔案同步", content: '<<sync>>'},
	importTask: {text: "導入", tooltip: "自其他檔案或伺服器導入文章或套件", content: '<<importTiddlers>>'},
	tweak: {text: "選項", tooltip: "改變此 TiddlyWiki 的顯示與行為的設定", content: '<<options>>'},
	upgrade: {text: "更新", tooltip: "更新 TiddlyWiki 核心程式", content: '<<upgrade>>'},
	plugins: {text: "套件管理", tooltip: "管理已安裝的套件", content: '<<plugins>>'}
});

merge(config.optionsDesc,{
	txtUserName: "編輯文章所使用之作者署名",
	chkRegExpSearch: "啟用正規式搜尋",
	chkCaseSensitiveSearch: "搜尋時,區分大小寫",
	chkIncrementalSearch: "隨打即找搜尋",
	chkAnimate: "使用動畫顯示",
	chkSaveBackups: "儲存變更前,保留備份檔案",
	chkAutoSave: "自動儲存變更",
	chkGenerateAnRssFeed: "儲存變更時,也儲存 RSS feed",
	chkSaveEmptyTemplate: "儲存變更時,也儲存空白範本",
	chkOpenInNewWindow: "於新視窗開啟連結",
	chkToggleLinks: "點擊已開啟文章連結時,將其關閉",
	chkHttpReadOnly: "非本機瀏覽文件時,隱藏編輯功能",
	chkForceMinorUpdate: "修改文章時,不變更作者名稱與日期時間",
	chkConfirmDelete: "刪除文章前須確認",
	chkInsertTabs: "使用 tab 鍵插入定位字元,而非跳至下一個欄位",
	txtBackupFolder: "存放備份檔案的資料夾",
	txtMaxEditRows: "編輯模式中顯示列數",
	txtTheme: "使用的佈景名稱",
	txtFileSystemCharSet: "指定儲存文件所在之檔案系統之字集 (僅適用於 Firefox/Mozilla only)"});

// Messages
merge(config.messages,{
	customConfigError: "套件載入發生錯誤,詳細請參考 PluginManager",
	pluginError: "發生錯誤: %0",
	pluginDisabled: "未執行,因標籤設為 'systemConfigDisable'",
	pluginForced: "已執行,因標籤設為 'systemConfigForce'",
	pluginVersionError: "未執行,套件需較新版本的 TiddlyWiki",
	nothingSelected: "尚未作任何選擇,至少需選擇一項",
	savedSnapshotError: "此 TiddlyWiki 未正確存檔,詳見 http://www.tiddlywiki.com/#Download",
	subtitleUnknown: "(未知)",
	undefinedTiddlerToolTip: "'%0' 尚無內容",
	shadowedTiddlerToolTip: "'%0' 尚無內容, 但已定義隱藏的預設值",
	tiddlerLinkTooltip: "%0 - %1, %2",
	externalLinkTooltip: "外部連結至 %0",
	noTags: "未設定標籤的文章",
	notFileUrlError: "須先將此 TiddlyWiki 存至檔案,才可儲存變更",
	cantSaveError: "無法儲存變更。可能的原因有:\n- 你的瀏覽器不支援此儲存功能(Firefox, Internet Explorer, Safari and Opera 經適當設定後可儲存變更)\n- 也可能是你的 TiddlyWiki 檔名包含不合法的字元所致。\n- 或是 TiddlyWiki 文件被改名或搬移。",
	invalidFileError: " '%0' 非有效之 TiddlyWiki 文件",
	backupSaved: "已儲存備份",
	backupFailed: "無法儲存備份",
	rssSaved: "RSS feed 已儲存",
	rssFailed: "無法儲存 RSS feed ",
	emptySaved: "已儲存範本",
	emptyFailed: "無法儲存範本",
	mainSaved: "主要的TiddlyWiki已儲存",
	mainFailed: "無法儲存主要 TiddlyWiki,所作的改變未儲存",
	macroError: "巨集 <<\%0>> 執行錯誤",
	macroErrorDetails: "執行巨集 <<\%0>> 時,發生錯誤 :\n%1",
	missingMacro: "無此巨集",
	overwriteWarning: "'%0' 已存在,[確定]覆寫之",
	unsavedChangesWarning: "注意! 尚未儲存變更\n\n[確定]存檔,或[取消]放棄存檔?",
	confirmExit: "--------------------------------\n\nTiddlyWiki 以更改內容尚未儲存,繼續的話將遺失這些更動\n\n--------------------------------",
	saveInstructions: "SaveChanges",
	unsupportedTWFormat: "未支援此 TiddlyWiki 格式:'%0'",
	tiddlerSaveError: "儲存文章 '%0' 時,發生錯誤。",
	tiddlerLoadError: "載入文章 '%0' 時,發生錯誤。",
	wrongSaveFormat: "無法使用格式 '%0' 儲存,請使用標准格式存放",
	invalidFieldName: "無效的欄位名稱:%0",
	fieldCannotBeChanged: "無法變更欄位:'%0'",
	loadingMissingTiddler: "正從伺服器 '%1' 的:\n\n工作區 '%3' 中的 '%2' 擷取文章 '%0'",
	upgradeDone: "已更新至 %0 版\n\n點擊 '確定' 重新載入更新後的 TiddlyWiki"});

merge(config.messages.messageClose,{
	text: "關閉",
	tooltip: "關閉此訊息"});

merge(config.messages,{
	backstage: {
		open: {text: "控制台", tooltip: "開啟控制台執行編寫工作"},
		close: {text: "關閉", tooltip: "關閉控制台"},
		prompt: "控制台:",
		decal: {
			edit: {text: "編輯", tooltip: "編輯 '%0'"}
		}}});

merge(config.messages,{
	listView: {
		tiddlerTooltip: "檢視全文",
		previewUnavailable: "(無法預覽)"}});

merge(config.messages,{
	dates: {
	months: ["一月", "二月", "三月", "四月", "五月", "六月", "七月", "八月", "九月", "十月", "十一月", "十二月"],
	days: ["星期日", "星期一","星期二", "星期三", "星期四", "星期五", "星期六"],
	shortMonths: ["一", "二", "三", "四", "五", "六", "七", "八", "九", "十", "十一", "十二"],
	shortDays: ["日", "一","二", "三", "四", "五", "六"],
	daySuffixes: ["st","nd","rd","th","th","th","th","th","th","th",
		"th","th","th","th","th","th","th","th","th","th",
		"st","nd","rd","th","th","th","th","th","th","th",
		"st"],
	am: "上午",
	pm: "下午"}});

merge(config.messages.tiddlerPopup,{ 
	});

merge(config.views.wikified.tag,{
	labelNoTags: "未設標籤",
	labelTags: "標籤: ",
	openTag: "開啟標籤 '%0'",
	tooltip: "顯示標籤為 '%0' 的文章",
	openAllText: "開啟以下所有文章",
	openAllTooltip: "開啟以下所有文章",
	popupNone: "僅此文標籤為 '%0'"});

merge(config.views.wikified,{
	defaultText: "",
	defaultModifier: "(未完成)",
	shadowModifier: "(預設)",
	dateFormat: "YYYY年0MM月0DD日",
	createdPrompt: "建立於"});

merge(config.views.editor,{
	tagPrompt: "設定標籤之間以空白區隔,[[標籤含空白時請使用雙中括弧]],或點選現有之標籤加入",
	defaultText: ""});

merge(config.views.editor.tagChooser,{
	text: "標籤",
	tooltip: "點選現有之標籤加至本文章",
	popupNone: "未設定標籤",
	tagTooltip: "加入標籤 '%0'"});

merge(config.messages,{
	sizeTemplates:
		[
		{unit: 1024*1024*1024, template: "%0\u00a0GB"},
		{unit: 1024*1024, template: "%0\u00a0MB"},
		{unit: 1024, template: "%0\u00a0KB"},
		{unit: 1, template: "%0\u00a0B"}
		]});

merge(config.macros.search,{
	label: " 尋找",
	prompt: "搜尋本 Wiki",
	accessKey: "F",
	successMsg: " %0 篇符合條件: %1",
	failureMsg: " 無符合條件: %0"});

merge(config.macros.tagging,{
	label: "引用標籤:",
	labelNotTag: "無引用標籤",
	tooltip: "列出標籤為 '%0' 的文章"});

merge(config.macros.timeline,{
	dateFormat: "YYYY年0MM月0DD日"});

merge(config.macros.allTags,{
	tooltip: "顯示文章- 標籤為'%0'",
	noTags: "沒有標籤"});

config.macros.list.all.prompt = "依字母排序";
config.macros.list.missing.prompt = "被引用且內容空白的文章";
config.macros.list.orphans.prompt = "未被引用的文章";
config.macros.list.shadowed.prompt = "這些隱藏的文章已預設內容";
config.macros.list.touched.prompt = "自下載或新增後被修改過的文章"; 

merge(config.macros.closeAll,{
	label: "全部關閉",
	prompt: "關閉所有開啟中的 tiddler (編輯中除外)"});

merge(config.macros.permaview,{
	label: "引用連結",
	prompt: "可存取現有開啟之文章的連結位址"});

merge(config.macros.saveChanges,{
	label: "儲存變更",
	prompt: "儲存所有文章,產生新的版本",
	accessKey: "S"});

merge(config.macros.newTiddler,{
	label: "新增文章",
	prompt: "新增 tiddler",
	title: "新增文章",
	accessKey: "N"});

merge(config.macros.newJournal,{
	label: "新增日誌",
	prompt: "新增 jounal",
	accessKey: "J"});

merge(config.macros.options,{
	wizardTitle: "增訂的進階選項",
	step1Title: "增訂的選項儲存於瀏覽器的 cookies",
	step1Html: "<input type='hidden' name='markList'></input><br><input type='checkbox' checked='false' name='chkUnknown'>顯示未知選項</input>",
	unknownDescription: "//(未知)//",
	listViewTemplate: {
		columns: [
			{name: 'Option', field: 'option', title: "選項", type: 'String'},
			{name: 'Description', field: 'description', title: "說明", type: 'WikiText'},
			{name: 'Name', field: 'name', title: "名稱", type: 'String'}
			],
		rowClasses: [
			{className: 'lowlight', field: 'lowlight'}
			]}
	});

merge(config.macros.plugins,{
	wizardTitle: "擴充套件管理",
	step1Title: "- 已載入之套件",
	step1Html: "<input type='hidden' name='markList'></input>", // DO NOT TRANSLATE
	skippedText: "(此套件因剛加入,故尚未執行)",
	noPluginText: "未安裝套件",
	confirmDeleteText: "確認是否刪除所選套件:\n\n%0",
	removeLabel: "移除 systemConfig 標籤",
	removePrompt: "移除 systemConfig 標籤",
	deleteLabel: "刪除",
	deletePrompt: "永遠刪除所選套件",

	listViewTemplate : {
		columns: [
			{name: 'Selected', field: 'Selected', rowName: 'title', type: 'Selector'},
			{name: 'Tiddler', field: 'tiddler', title: "套件", type: 'Tiddler'},
			{name: 'Description', field: 'desc', title: "說明", type: 'String'},
			{name: 'Version', field: 'Version', title: "版本", type: 'String'},
			{name: 'Size', field: 'size', tiddlerLink: 'size', title: "大小", type: 'Size'},
			{name: 'Forced', field: 'forced', title: "強制執行", tag: 'systemConfigForce', type: 'TagCheckbox'},
			{name: 'Disabled', field: 'disabled', title: "停用", tag: 'systemConfigDisable', type: 'TagCheckbox'},
			{name: 'Executed', field: 'executed', title: "已載入", type: "Boolean", trueText: "是", falseText: "否"},
			{name: 'Startup Time', field: 'startupTime', title: "載入時間", type: 'String'},
			{name: 'Error', field: 'error', title: "載入狀態", type: 'Boolean', trueText: "錯誤", falseText: "正常"},
			{name: 'Log', field: 'log', title: "紀錄", type: 'StringList'}
			],
		rowClasses: [
			{className: 'error', field: 'error'},
			{className: 'warning', field: 'warning'}
			]}
	});

merge(config.macros.toolbar,{
	moreLabel: "+",
	morePrompt: "顯示更多工具列命令",
	lessLabel: "-",
	lessPrompt: "隱藏部份工具列命令",
	separator: "|"
	});
	
merge(config.macros.refreshDisplay,{
	label: "刷新",
	prompt: "刷新此 TiddlyWiki 顯示"
	});
	
merge(config.macros.importTiddlers,{
	readOnlyWarning: "TiddlyWiki 於唯讀模式下,不支援導入文章。請由本機(file://)開啟 TiddlyWiki 文件",
	wizardTitle: "自其他檔案或伺服器導入文章",
	step1Title: "步驟一:指定伺服器或來源文件",
	step1Html: "指定伺服器類型:<select name='selTypes'><option value=''>選取...</option></select><br>請輸入網址或路徑:<input type='text' size=50 name='txtPath'><br>...或選擇來源文件:<input type='file' size=50 name='txtBrowse'><br><hr>...或選擇指定的饋入來源:<select name='selFeeds'><option value=''>選取...</option></select>",
	openLabel: "開啟",
	openPrompt: "開啟檔案或",
	openError: "讀取來源文件時發生錯誤",
	statusOpenHost: "正與伺服器建立連線",
	statusGetWorkspaceList: "正在取得可用之文章清單",
	errorGettingTiddlerList: "取得文章清單時發生錯誤,請點選「取消」後重試。",
	step2Title: "步驟二:選擇工作區",
	step2Html: "輸入工作區名稱:<input type='text' size=50 name='txtWorkspace'><br>...或選擇工作區:<select name='selWorkspace'><option value=''>選取...</option></select>",
	cancelLabel: "取消",
	cancelPrompt: "取消本次導入動作",
	statusOpenWorkspace: "正在開啟工作區",
	statusGetTiddlerList: "正在取得可用之文章清單",
	step3Title: "步驟三:選擇欲導入之文章",
	step3Html: "<input type='hidden' name='markList'></input><br><input type='checkbox' checked='true' name='chkSync'>保持這些文章與伺服器的連結,便於同步後續的變更。</input><br><input type='checkbox' name='chkSave'>儲存此伺服器的詳細資訊於標籤為 'systemServer' 的文章名為:</input> <input type='text' size=25 name='txtSaveTiddler'>", 
	importLabel: "導入",
	importPrompt: "導入所選文章",
	confirmOverwriteText: "確定要覆寫這些文章:\n\n%0",
	step4Title: "步驟四:正在導入%0 篇文章",
	step4Html: "<input type='hidden' name='markReport'></input>", // DO NOT TRANSLATE
	doneLabel: "完成",
	donePrompt: "關閉",
	statusDoingImport: "正在導入文章 ...",
	statusDoneImport: "所選文章已導入",
	systemServerNamePattern: "%2 位於 %1",
	systemServerNamePatternNoWorkspace: "%1",
	confirmOverwriteSaveTiddler: "此 tiddler '%0' 已經存在。點擊「確定」以伺服器上料覆寫之,或「取消」不變更後離開",
	serverSaveTemplate: "|''Type:''|%0|\n|''網址:''|%1|\n|''工作區:''|%2|\n\n此文為自動產生紀錄伺服器之相關資訊。",
	serverSaveModifier: "(系統)",

	listViewTemplate: {
		columns: [
			{name: 'Selected', field: 'Selected', rowName: 'title', type: 'Selector'},
			{name: 'Tiddler', field: 'tiddler', title: "文章", type: 'Tiddler'},
			{name: 'Size', field: 'size', tiddlerLink: 'size', title: "大小", type: 'Size'},
			{name: 'Tags', field: 'tags', title: "標籤", type: 'Tags'}
			],
		rowClasses: [
			]}
	});

merge(config.macros.upgrade,{
	wizardTitle: "更新 TiddlyWiki 核心程式",
	step1Title: "更新或修補此 TiddlyWiki 至最新版本",
	step1Html: "您將更新至最新版本的 TiddlyWiki 核心程式 (自 <a href='%0' class='externalLink' target='_blank'>%1</a>)。 在更新過程中,您的資料將被保留。<br><br>請注意:更新核心可能不相容於其他套件。若對更新的檔案有問題,詳見 <a href='http://www.tiddlywiki.org/wiki/CoreUpgrades' class='externalLink' target='_blank'>http://www.tiddlywiki.org/wiki/CoreUpgrades</a>",
	errorCantUpgrade: "j無法更新此 TiddlyWiki. 您只能自本機端的 TiddlyWiki 檔案執行更新程序",
	errorNotSaved: "執行更新之前,請先儲存變更",
	step2Title: "確認更新步驟",
	step2Html_downgrade: "您的 TiddlyWiki 將自 %1 版降級至 %0版。<br><br>不建議降級至較舊的版本。",
	step2Html_restore: "此 TiddlyWiki 核心已是最新版 (%0)。<br><br>您可以繼續更新作業以確認核心程式未曾毀損。",
	step2Html_upgrade: "您的 TiddlyWiki 将自 %1 版更新至 %0 版",
	upgradeLabel: "更新",
	upgradePrompt: "準備更新作業",
	statusPreparingBackup: "準備備份中",
	statusSavingBackup: "備份檔案",
	errorSavingBackup: "備份檔案時發生問題",
	statusLoadingCore: "核心程式載入中",
	errorLoadingCore: "載入核心程式時,發生錯誤",
	errorCoreFormat: "新版核心程式發生錯誤",
	statusSavingCore: "正在儲存新版核心程式",
	statusReloadingCore: "新版核心程式載入中",
	startLabel: "開始",
	startPrompt: "開始更新作業",
	cancelLabel: "取消",
	cancelPrompt: "取消更新作業",
	step3Title: "已取消更新作業",
	step3Html: "您已取消更新作業"
	});

merge(config.macros.sync,{
	listViewTemplate: {
		columns: [
			{name: 'Selected', field: 'selected', rowName: 'title', type: 'Selector'},
			{name: 'Tiddler', field: 'tiddler', title: "文章", type: 'Tiddler'},
			{name: 'Server Type', field: 'serverType', title: "伺服器類型", type: 'String'},
			{name: 'Server Host', field: 'serverHost', title: "伺服器主機", type: 'String'},
			{name: 'Server Workspace', field: 'serverWorkspace', title: "伺服器工作區", type: 'String'},
			{name: 'Status', field: 'status', title: "同步情形", type: 'String'},
			{name: 'Server URL', field: 'serverUrl', title: "伺服器網址", text: "檢視", type: 'Link'}
			],
		rowClasses: [
			],
		buttons: [
			{caption: "同步更新這些文章", name: 'sync'}
			]},
	wizardTitle: "將你的資料內容與外部伺服器與檔案同步",
	step1Title: "選擇欲同步的文章",
	step1Html: '<input type="hidden" name="markList"></input>', // DO NOT TRANSLATE
	syncLabel: "同步",
	syncPrompt: "同步更新這些文章",
	hasChanged: "已更動",
	hasNotChanged: "未更動",
	syncStatusList: {
		none: {text: "...", display:null, className:'notChanged'},
		changedServer: {text: "伺服器資料已更動", display:null, className:'changedServer'},
		changedLocally: {text: "本機資料已更動", display:null, className:'changedLocally'},
		changedBoth: {text: "已同時更新本機與伺服器上的資料", display:null, className:'changedBoth'},
		notFound: {text: "伺服器無此資料", display:null, className:'notFound'},
		putToServer: {text: "已儲存更新資料至伺服器", display:null, className:'putToServer'},
		gotFromServer: {text: "已從伺服器擷取更新資料", display:null, className:'gotFromServer'}
		}
	});

merge(config.macros.annotations,{
	});

merge(config.commands.closeTiddler,{
	text: "關閉",
	tooltip: "關閉本文"});

merge(config.commands.closeOthers,{
	text: "關閉其他",
	tooltip: "關閉其他文章"});

merge(config.commands.editTiddler,{
	text: "編輯",
	tooltip: "編輯本文",
	readOnlyText: "檢視",
	readOnlyTooltip: "檢視本文之原始內容"});

merge(config.commands.saveTiddler,{
	text: "完成",
	tooltip: "確定修改"});

merge(config.commands.cancelTiddler,{
	text: "取消",
	tooltip: "取消修改",
	warning: "確定取消對 '%0' 的修改嗎?",
	readOnlyText: "完成",
	readOnlyTooltip: "返回正常顯示模式"});

merge(config.commands.deleteTiddler,{
	text: "刪除",
	tooltip: "刪除文章",
	warning: "確定刪除 '%0'?"});

merge(config.commands.permalink,{
	text: "引用連結",
	tooltip: "本文引用連結"});

merge(config.commands.references,{
	text: "引用",
	tooltip: "引用本文的文章",
	popupNone: "本文未被引用"});

merge(config.commands.jump,{
	text: "捲頁",
	tooltip: "捲頁至其他已開啟的文章"});

merge(config.commands.syncing,{
	text: "同步",
	tooltip: "本文章與伺服器或其他外部檔案的同步資訊",
	currentlySyncing: "<div>同步類型:<span class='popupHighlight'>'%0'</span></"+"div><div>與伺服器:<span class='popupHighlight'>%1 同步</span></"+"div><div>工作區:<span class='popupHighlight'>%2</span></"+"div>", // Note escaping of closing <div> tag
	notCurrentlySyncing: "無進行中的同步動作",
	captionUnSync: "停止同步此文章",
	chooseServer: "與其他伺服器同步此文章:",
	currServerMarker: "\u25cf ",
	notCurrServerMarker: "  "});

merge(config.commands.fields,{
	text: "欄位",
	tooltip: "顯示此文章的擴充資訊",
	emptyText: "此文章沒有擴充欄位",
	listViewTemplate: {
		columns: [
			{name: 'Field', field: 'field', title: "擴充欄位", type: 'String'},
			{name: 'Value', field: 'value', title: "內容", type: 'String'}
			],
		rowClasses: [
			],
		buttons: [
			]}});

merge(config.shadowTiddlers,{
	DefaultTiddlers: "[[GettingStarted]]",
	GettingStarted: "使用此 TiddlyWiki 的空白範本之前,請先修改以下預設文章:\n* SiteTitle 及 SiteSubtitle:網站的標題和副標題,顯示於頁面上方<br />(在儲存變更後,將顯示於瀏覽器視窗的標題列)。\n* MainMenu:主選單(通常在頁面左側)。\n* DefaultTiddlers:內含一些文章的標題,可於載入TiddlyWiki 後的預設開啟。\n請輸入您的大名,作為所建立/ 編輯的文章署名:<<option txtUserName>>",
	MainMenu: "[[使用說明|GettingStarted]]\n\n\n版本:<<version>>",
	OptionsPanel: "這些設定將暫存於瀏覽器\n請簽名<<option txtUserName>>\n (範例:WikiWord)\n\n <<option chkSaveBackups>> 儲存備份\n <<option chkAutoSave>> 自動儲存\n <<option chkRegExpSearch>> 正規式搜尋\n <<option chkCaseSensitiveSearch>> 區分大小寫搜尋\n <<option chkAnimate>> 使用動畫顯示\n----\n [[進階選項|AdvancedOptions]]",
	SiteTitle: "我的 TiddlyWiki",
	SiteSubtitle: "一個可重複使用的個人網頁式筆記本",
	SiteUrl: '',
	SideBarOptions: '<<search>><<closeAll>><<permaview>><<newTiddler>><<newJournal " YYYY年0MM月0DD日" "日誌">><<saveChanges>><<slider chkSliderOptionsPanel OptionsPanel "偏好設定 \u00bb" "變更 TiddlyWiki 選項">>',
	SideBarTabs: '<<tabs txtMainTab "最近更新" "依更新日期排序" TabTimeline "全部" "所有文章" TabAll "分類" "所有標籤" TabTags "更多" "其他" TabMore>>',
	StyleSheet: '[[StyleSheetLocale]]',
	TabMore: '<<tabs txtMoreTab "未完成" "內容空白的文章" TabMoreMissing "未引用" "未被引用的文章" TabMoreOrphans "預設文章" "已預設內容的隱藏文章" TabMoreShadowed>>'
});

merge(config.annotations,{
	AdvancedOptions: "此預設文章可以存取一些進階選項。",
	ColorPalette: "此預設文章裡的設定值,將決定 ~TiddlyWiki 使用者介面的配色。",
	DefaultTiddlers: "當 ~TiddlyWiki 在瀏覽器中開啟時,此預設文章裡列出的文章,將被自動顯示。",
	EditTemplate: "此預設文章裡的 HTML template 將決定文章進入編輯模式時的顯示版面。",
	GettingStarted: "此預設文章提供基本的使用說明。",
	ImportTiddlers: "此預設文章提供存取導入中的文章。",
	MainMenu: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕左側主選單的內容",
	MarkupPreHead: "此文章的內容將加至 TiddlyWiki 文件的 <head> 段落的起始",
	MarkupPostHead: "此文章的內容將加至 TiddlyWiki 文件的 <head> 段落的最後",
	MarkupPreBody: "此文章的內容將加至 TiddlyWiki 文件的 <body> 段落的起始",
	MarkupPostBody: "此文章的內容將加至 TiddlyWiki 文件的 <body> 段落的最後,於 script 區塊之後",
	OptionsPanel: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的選項面板裡的內容",
	PageTemplate: "此預設文章裡的 HTML template 決定的 ~TiddlyWiki 主要的版面配置",
	PluginManager: "此預設文章提供存取套件管理員",
	SideBarOptions: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中選項面板裡的內容",
	SideBarTabs: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的頁籤面板裡的內容",
	SiteSubtitle: "此預設文章的內容為頁面的副標題",
	SiteTitle: "此預設文章的內容為頁面的主標題",
	SiteUrl: "此預設文章的內容須設定為文件發佈時的完整網址",
	StyleSheetColors: "此預設文章內含的 CSS 規則,為相關的頁面元素的配色。''勿修改此文'',請於 StyleSheet 中作增修",
	StyleSheet: "此預設文章內容可包含 CSS 規則",
	StyleSheetLayout: "此預設文章內含的 CSS 規則,為相關的頁面元素的版面配置。''勿修改此文'',請於 StyleSheet 中作增修",
	StyleSheetLocale: "此預設文章內含的 CSS 規則,可依翻譯語系做適當調整",
	StyleSheetPrint: "此預設文章內含的 CSS 規則,用於列印時的樣式",
	TabAll: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的「全部」頁籤的內容",
	TabMore: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的「更多」頁籤的內容",
	TabMoreMissing: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的「未完成」頁籤的內容",
	TabMoreOrphans: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的「未引用」頁籤的內容",
	TabMoreShadowed: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的「預設文章」頁籤的內容",
	TabTags: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的「分類」頁籤的內容",
	TabTimeline: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的「最近更新」頁籤的內容",
	ToolbarCommands: "此預設文章的內容,為顯示於文章工具列之命令",
	ViewTemplate: "此預設文章裡的 HTML template 決定文章顯示的樣子"
	});
//}}}
This research reports on a study of curriculum materials development and use compared with the use of existing curriculum materials in an elementary classroom. The research explored the effect of explicit attention to epistemic practices in curriculum materials and the enactment of those materials. Epistemic practices include asking questions, collecting data, making descriptions of observations, finding patterns in the data, and developing scientific reasoning. Scaffolding considered the function, role, and purpose of epistemic practices in the community of science and the production of scientific knowledge. The designed curriculum was compared with an existing pedagogically similar curriculum to consider whether the scaffolding and explicitness affected enactment. Findings lead to the conclusion that enactment was impacted. Specifically, findings show that scaffolding in materials created more instances of students engaging in scientific reasoning. Similarly, the explicit description of epistemic practices supported the teacher in explicitly providing opportunities for children to learn about and use epistemic practices of science. Finally, when using the designed curriculum, teacher modifications during enactment showed to be more consistent with the intended instructional approach and also helpful for children in learning epistemic practices of science. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:608–630, 2008

Enfield, M., Smith, E. L. and Grueber, D. J. (2008), “A sketch is like a sentence”: Curriculum structures that support teaching epistemic practices of science. Science Education, 92: 608–630. doi: 10.1002/sce.20252
Within the already limited literature on instructional practices in detracked classrooms, there are even fewer research-based studies of detracked science classrooms. This article attempts to address this gap in the research literature, delving into the unique challenges and instructional responses to teaching detracked science. The authors report on a case study of two chemistry teachers' heterogeneous classrooms at a racially diverse, public high school in California, where all students have been required to take chemistry since the school's founding in 1994. The authors highlight the following four beliefs and instructional practices that were instrumental in teachers' successful efforts to teach detracked chemistry classes: (1) teachers' true belief in a developmental conception of ability and intelligence; (2) a focus on an inquiry-based pedagogical approach to chemistry foregrounding real-world contexts; (3) a focus on teaching students study skills; and (4) a strong sense of community in the classroom, where students are held responsible for their own and each other's learning. To illustrate each of these findings, the authors select vivid examples from fieldnotes of classroom observations as well as interviews of teachers and students that make clear how teachers enacted and students experienced these elements in chemistry classrooms. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed91:683–709, 2007

Watanabe, M., Nunes, N., Mebane, S., Scalise, K. and Claesgens, J. (2007), “Chemistry for all, instead of chemistry just for the elite”: Lessons learned from detracked chemistry classrooms. Science Education, 91: 683–709. doi: 10.1002/sce.20213
The concern about students' engagement with school science and the numbers pursuing the further study of science is an international phenomenon and a matter of considerable concern among policy makers. Research has demonstrated that the majority of young children have positive attitudes to science at age 10 but that this interest then declines sharply and by age 14, their attitude and interest in the study of science has been largely formed. This paper reports on data collected as part of a funded 5-year longitudinal study that seeks to determine how students' interest in science and scientific careers evolves. As an initial part of the study, six focus group discussions were undertaken with schoolchildren, age 10–11, to explore their attitudes toward science and interest in science, the findings of which are presented here. The children's responses are analyzed through the lens of identity, drawing on a theoretical framework that views identity as an embodied and a performed construction that is both produced by individuals and shaped by their specific structural locations. This work offers new insights into the manner in which students construct representations of science and scientists. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:617–639, 2010

Archer, L., DeWitt, J., Osborne, J., Dillon, J., Willis, B. and Wong, B. (2010), “Doing” science versus “being” a scientist: Examining 10/11-year-old schoolchildren's constructions of science through the lens of identity. Science Education, 94: 617–639. doi: 10.1002/sce.20399
This paper examines the framings that the fields of the social studies of science and science education use for each other. It is shown that the social studies of science frames science education as passive and timeless. Science education frames science studies as a set of representations to better capture how science works. The paper then proceeds to sketch an alternative in which schools are understood, drawing on actor-network theory and cultural studies of science, as constituted through contesting scientific practices and discourses and, therefore, are proper objects of study within science studies frameworks. The curricular implications are briefly developed, emphasizing the need for much more reflection upon and activism within science education regarding the technoscientific constitution of students and schools. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:389–403, 2008

Weinstein, M. (2008), Finding science in the school body: Reflections on transgressing the boundaries of science education and the social studies of science. Science Education, 92: 389–403. doi: 10.1002/sce.20267