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Abstract
The purpose of this study was to identify the components of a framework for affective education implementation based on a positive psychology approach. A fifth grade class of 31 students in a public rural elementary school in Taiwan participated in a 13-week long affective education course that consisted of six units: Self-discovery, Love and Gratitude, Empathy, Emotions, Optimism, and Hope. Storytelling and interdisciplinary instruction were utilized as two primary teaching strategies. Constructivist grounded theory case study was used as a qualitative methodological approach and four data sources including participant observations, field notes, artifacts, and self-assessment were collected. A framework for affective education implementation that emerged from the data consisted of three levels: the classroom in/out level, the school/family level, and the society/culture level. Findings on the components of a framework for affective education implementation are presented and discussed.
Keywords Affective education - Case study - Interdisciplinary instruction - Positive psychology
Chin-Chiang Wang
is a teacher at the Independent School Foundation Academy in Hong Kong. This research was conducted while he was a doctoral student at the University of Northern Colorado.
Heng-Yu Ku
is an Associate Professor in the Educational Technology Program, College of Education and Behavioral Sciences at the University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, 80639.
Abstract
This study was designed to investigate the effects of teaching critical thinking skills (CTS) in a large class through asynchronous discussion forums (ADFs) with the facilitation of teaching assistants. A pretest and posttest quasi-experimental design with a comparison group was employed to validate the effectiveness of the proposed approach. The independent variable was the structured ADFs with two levels—without Socratic dialogues, and with Socratic dialogues, modeled and facilitated by the teaching assistants via structured ADFs, while the dependent variable was the students’ levels of CTS as measured by two different evaluations: (a) the California Critical Thinking Skills Test, to holistically examine students’ gains in their CTS, and (b) the Coding Scheme for Evaluating Critical Thinking in Computer Conferencing, to investigate students’ interaction patterns and the depth of their critical thinking (CT) demonstrated via the ADF. The evaluation data were collected from 278 college students in Taiwan. The qualitative analysis provided a detailed description of how students’ discussions moved from the lower to the higher phases of CT. Results indicated that an inspired instructor and some energetic teaching assistants who use Socratic dialogues during small-group online discussions can successfully develop students’ CTS in a large university class.
Keywords Critical thinking - Computer-mediated communication - General education - Large class size - Graduate teaching assistants
Abstract The Eastern cultural tradition, together with other social factors, has shaped a group-based, teacher-dominated, and centrally organized pedagogical culture. Drawing upon this cultural perspective, this article reviews the development of information and communication technologies (ICT) in Eastern schools, including ICT planning and management, hardware infrastructures, software resources and services, professional development, and ICT-supported educational practices. It highlights the impact of the pedagogical culture on technology use, as well as the role of technology in pedagogical change. The review suggests a number of critical challenges Eastern educators need to address.
Keywords Asia - Educational change - Educational technology - Information and communication technology - Pedagogical culture
Abstract
This paper focuses on theory and research issues associated with the use of hypermedia technologies in education. It is proposed that viewing hypermedia technologies as an enabling infrastructure for tools to support learning—in particular learning in problem-based pedagogical environments involving cases—has particular promise. After considering research issues with problem-based learning related to knowledge transfer and conceptual change, a design framework is discussed for a hypermedia system with scaffolding features intended to support and enhance problem-based learning with cases. Preliminary results are reported of research involving a new version of this hypermedia design approach with special ontological scaffolding to explore conceptual change and far knowledge transfer issues related to learning advanced scientific knowledge involving complex systems as well as the use of the system in a graduate seminar class. Overall, it is hoped that this program of research will stimulate further work on learning and cognitive sciences theoretical and research issues, on the characteristics of design features for robust and educationally powerful hypermedia systems, on ways that hypermedia systems might be used to support innovative pedagogical approaches being used in the schools, and on how particular designs for learning technologies might foster learning of conceptually difficult knowledge and skills that are increasingly necessary in the 21st century.
Keywords Hypermedia - Hypertext - Technology design - Problem based learning - Conceptual change - Transfer
Abstract This study aims to be a contribution to a theoretical model that explains the effectiveness of the learning and decision-making processes by means of a feedback and mental models perspective. With appropriate mental models, managers should be able to improve their capacity to deal with dynamically complex contexts, in order to achieve long-term success. We present a set of hypotheses about the influence of feedback information and systems thinking facilitation on mental models and management performance. We explore, under controlled conditions, the role of mental models in terms of structure and behaviour. A test based on a simulation experiment with a system dynamics model was performed. Three out of the four hypotheses were confirmed. Causal diagramming positively influences mental model structure similarity, mental model structure similarity positively influences mental model behaviour similarity, and mental model behaviour similarity positively influences the quality of the decision.
Keywords Mental model - Double-loop learning - Systems thinking - Simulation experiment
This year, for the first time, each of the winners of AECT’s Design and Development Division Awards will be invited to deliver a conference presentation about their award-winning entry and the senior author of each winning entry will be given a $100 rebate on his or her conference registration fee (courtesy of the programs in Instructional Technology and Distance Education at Nova Southeastern University). Information about each of the awards, including how to submit nominations, is presented below. Please note that you may nominate your own work as well as the work of others. All nominations and accompanying materials must be received by June 30, 2007. Don’t miss this opportunity to be recognized for your work, to get an automatic presentation slot at the conference, and to receive a $100 rebate on your conference registration fee!!!! Submit your nomination(s) as soon as possible!
Abstract
Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional approach in which students in small groups engage in an authentic, ill-structured problem, and must (1) define, generate and pursue learning issues to understand the problem, (2) develop a possible solution, (3) provide evidence to support their solution, and (4) present their solution and the evidence that supports it (Barrows, How to design a problem-based curriculum for the preclinical years. Springer Publishing, New York, 1985). However, research has shown that novice problem-solvers and learners without deep content knowledge have difficulty developing strong evidence-based arguments (Krajcik et al., J Learn Sci 7:313–350, 1998a; Reiser, J Lear Sci 13(3):273–304, 2004). In this paper, we discuss the components of (e.g., claims and evidence) and processes of making (e.g., define problem and make claim) evidence-based arguments. Furthermore, we review various scaffolding models designed to help students perform various tasks associated with creating evidence-based arguments (e.g., link claims to evidence) and present guidelines for the development of computer-based scaffolds to help middle school students build evidence-based arguments.
Abstract
The purpose of this article is to present a systems-based mentoring model of technology integration that follows a research-based path. The model moves teachers through four specific stages of technology adoption toward using technology to support learning in more student-centered ways. The model describes how a mentor can negotiate the interplay of multiple barriers (time, beliefs, access, professional development, culture) on teachers who are learning to integrate technology and suggests a number of strategies for integrating technology, such as establishing a culture of technology integration, modeling technology use, and creating teacher leaders. Unlike previous mentoring approaches to integrating technology into the classroom, this model culminates with the establishment of a teacher-led community of practice that uses the resources currently available at a school to support and sustain the implementation of the system. Suggestions for implementing the model in a variety of K-12 and higher education settings are discussed.
Keywords Technology integration - Model of technology integration - Mentoring - Community of practice
Every now and then a book comes into the social conversation about the future of education that has the potential to significantly change attitudes and opinions, and perhaps even influence policy decisions. I believe that the new book by Allan Collins and Richard Halverson, Rethinking Education in the Age of Technology—The Digital Revolution and Schooling in America, will be one of those.
Collins and Halverson address an issue that has received considerable attention in the recent past: Current models of schooling are broken, and we need to move onto alternatives that integrate technology in innovative and meaningful ways. Other authors addressing the issue of reform—with technology as a key component—include David Thornburg’s 1992 book, Edutrends 2010: Restructuring, technology, and the future of education, more recently Andrew A Zucker’s Transforming schools with technology—How smart use of digital tools helps achieve six key education goals (2008), and Clayton Christenson and colleagues’ Disrupting Class: How Disruptive Innovation Will Change the Way the World Learns (2008). Less well known, but equally worthy of attention in this context, is the Report of the NSF Task Force on Cyberlearning, Fostering Learning in the Networked World: The Cyberlearning Opportunity and Challenge (2008). Collins and Halverson’s book is unique among these in that it not only looks forward and identifies what needs to be done (and why), but also looks back in time and does a marvelous job of explaining how our education system got to be the way it is today. Their historical review establishes them as thoughtful realists rather than either wide-eyed tech enthusiasts or nostalgic skeptics.
One of the book’s core ideas is that “…technology’s main impact on learning is occurring outside of school” (p. xiv). The authors carefully distinguish between schooling, education, and learning in Chap. 1, touching upon the differences again and again as they first present the arguments in favor of technology in education (Chap. 2), the skeptics’ arguments against it (Chap. 3), followed by a recap on the development of American schooling (Chap. 4). To keep the historical angle flowing perhaps Chap. 6 (“The Three Eras of Education”) should have been Chap. 5, which is instead devoted to “The Seeds of a New System of Education.” Chapter 7 reflects on possible positive and negative consequences of the envisioned changes, followed by chapters where Collins and Halverson lay out the substance of their perspective: Suggestions for “How Schools Can Cope With New Technologies” in Chap. 8, and some guidance on figuring out “What Does It All Mean” in Chap. 9, leading to the closing chapter on why we should be “Rethinking Education in a Technological World” (Chap. 10).
The distinction between education, schooling, and learning allows Collins and Halverson to analyze the tension surrounding change in schools and technology’s role in that process. A section in Chap. 2 contrasting learning by assimilation (what most schools try to do now) versus learning by doing (the model favored by the authors) states it plainly: “So technology is likely to take education in a different direction, toward design and construction of artifacts and analysis of complex problems and situations. This is a vastly different view of education from that which pervades the culture of schooling” (p. 47).
Part of what motivates technology enthusiasts is the recognition that what society needs from schools has changed compared to the time (the nineteenth century) when the current model for schooling was put in place. Demographic, cultural, social, political, and technological changes all point to the need to have our schools prepare students in forward-looking rather than backward-looking ways.
As mentioned above, the last three chapters are the ones where the authors elaborate their arguments in more detail. Chapter 8 details their reasons for performance-based assessment versus standardized tests, for new curriculum designs that include “using technology to help students focus their learning around their goals and interests” (p. 117), and for innovative strategies to address inequities in access to and benefits of digital technologies. Chapter 9 is a brief one that addresses three pressing questions: “What are kids learning from technology?” (one answer is “sophisticated problem-solving and communication skills in virtual worlds beyond the experience of many parents,” p. 123); “How has technology changed kids’ social lives and learning” (e.g., social media like SMS and Facebook, participatory media like YouTube, and video games); and “Where does this leave us?” (Their view: “we need strong leadership from innovative educators to make sure that the new system embodies our society’s critical goals for education,” p. 127). Access to technology by itself is major issue, but solving the access problem without addressing the even larger questions about what is the social purpose of education in the twenty first century, which ties back to questions about assessment strategies, will not be enough.
Readers pressed for time or who like to skip to “the best parts” should go from Chap. 1 (which includes an overview of the book) to Chap. 10, which delivers on the book’s title by presenting the specifics of what needs to be rethought in American education:
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Learning—no longer associated exclusively with “schooling”
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Motivation—fostering intrinsic, self-driven efforts at lifelong learning
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What is important to learn—skills for a knowledge, not an industrial, economy
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Careers—jobs that “emphasize collaboration, communication, and knowledge-processing skills” (p. 135)
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Transitions between learning and work—more than once in a lifetime, and well supported at different stages of people’s careers
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Educational leadership—visionaries who can figure out “…how to integrate nonschool resources into learning environments, both supporting families in bringing these tools into their homes and in building wired learning centers in communities that reach those in need” (p. 140), and
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The role of government in education—the Feds equalizing educational opportunities, the states reconsidering “their mandates of keeping kids in comprehensive schools until they are 16 years old” (p. 143).
Rethinking U.S. education is a relatively easy task compared to the challenges of actually implementing significant reforms. Among industrialized nations, the U.S. is the only country with a decentralized system where the federal/central government must defer to states and localities on what students get to experience in the classroom. Individual districts or even entire states (consider Maine’s landmark laptop program—http://www.maine.gov/mlti/) are able to move forward when the economic resources are available and the political will is strong, but so far the pace of change has been slow and the magnitude of the efforts (on a national scale) limited. Administrators and policy makers looking for more specific guidance on what to do next will likely not be as satisfied with this book. Collins and Halverson do not provide many examples of existing projects that could serve as evidence for the viability of their ideas and their claims (Zucker’s book is a better resource in this regard). At several points in the book they indicate what, “As a society, we need to…” do to address problems. For example, toward the end of the book they suggest that “…we need to build policies that support people in making the many career transitions they will have to make in a constantly changing environment” (p. 137), but stop right there and don’t elaborate on what such policies should look like or how technology initiatives could be a major component of these policies. Should open learning initiatives like MIT’s OpenCourseWare be viable options for non-matriculated, self-driven learners in between jobs to earn a degree or, a certification recognized in the job market? (See, for example, the Chronicle of Higher Education regarding the benefits and challenges of open learning initiatives not tied to degrees or certifications: http://chronicle.com/article/Free-Online-Courses-at-a-Very/48777/.)
Collins and Halverson also pay little attention to ongoing efforts to redesign schools that could be examined as possible models to emulate and replicate: Should schools and districts be reorganized along the lines of Dennis Littky’s Big Picture Schools (http://www.bigpicture.org/), the New Tech Network’s New Tech High Schools (http://newtechfoundation.org), or the San Diego-based High Tech High School model (http://www.hightechhigh.org/about/)? Their suggestions are at too high a level (particularly in the section in Chap. 10 on rethinking school leadership) to be of much practical use to decision makers. This is perhaps an unfair criticism since the book never pretends to be a “how to” book—this is definitely not “reforming education for dummies.” Still, a vision for the future that offered more concrete starting points based on ongoing, successful experiences—perhaps even a few case studies that ground that vision in reality—would have greatly enriched this already intellectually generous book.
In sum, Rethinking Education in the Age of Technology is a great source of historical perspectives on the U.S. education system, information about important trends in society and in technology, and a compelling argument for change. Graduate students and faculty will be satisfied with the many ideas and issues raised that will fuel rich discussions in class, while administrators and policy makers may be left wishing for more specifics.
Collins and Halverson have given us a well-written book that deserves to be read carefully. Many of its ideas can be included in planning efforts at every level, from local schools and districts all the way up to the federal government’s current effort to craft National Educational Technology Standards. There is little doubt that we need to rethink our education system. This book makes many valuable contributions to this difficult task.
Abstract This paper discusses an action research study focused on developing a mobile learning model of literacy development for underserved migrant indigenous children in Latin America. The research study incorporated a cyclical action model with four distinctive stages (Strategize, Apply, Evaluate, and Reflect) designed to guide constituencies involved in the study to design, test, and enhance a mobile learning model. The findings, to date, reveal some of the contextual phenomena that create both challenges and opportunities for a mobile learning model. From this, design strategies are evolving focused on sustained literacy exposure for extremely marginalized (economically, educationally, geographically, and technologically) migrant indigenous children who have no consistent access to a formal education system.
Keywords Education inequality - Mobile learning - Technology design - Underserved community - Action research
Hypermedia learning environments such as the World Wide Web and CD based multimedia encyclopedias are extensively used in education, frequently with the intent of helping students learn challenging educational subjects. However, we caution educators, instructional designers, and researchers not to be seduced by design approaches for hypermedia environments that allow learners to access, manipulate, or restructure multiple representations of information while receiving little or no scaffolding during learning. As the authors of this special issue demonstrate, learning with hypertext and hypermedia is challenging for learners of all ages and that systematic and carefully designed research is needed in order to contribute to our understanding of how to promote learning with non-linear systems such as these. We further argue that hypermedia design approaches should be informed by empirical research with multiple methodologies from various disciplines rather than adopting ad hoc or intuition-based approaches to designing and evaluating educational hypermedia. Furthermore, our conceptions and formulations of scaffolding have deviated from the original conception (i.e., Wood et al. 1976) of the construct so much that there is some confusion and a general lack of synthesis regarding the nature, role, and effectiveness of scaffolding in learning with hypermedia (see Azevedo and Hadwin 2005; Jacobson, this volume). What we need is a concerted effort by researchers from various fields to conduct theoretically-driven laboratory and classroom research from which to draw scientifically-based principles for the design of hypermedia-based learning environments intended to foster students’ learning about complex and challenging topics.
The papers in this special issue hopefully represent principled steps towards addressing such issues. The goal of this article is to summarize the papers in this volume, and to provide a brief discussion and critique of issues regarding theoretical, empirical, and educational issues related to scaffolding learning with hypermedia.
Of the uses of globally distributed hypertext and hypermedia technologies in education, it might be said that we live in the best of times and the worst of times. Over approximately two decades, we have seen hypermedia technologies (i.e., hyperlinks between nodes of digitally encoded information such as text, images, video, simulations, animations, and so on) advance from obscure military and basic research projects on specialized computers to form the basis of a globally distributed networked hypermedia environment known as the World Wide Web. In addition, commonly available and inexpensive multimedia handheld devices, laptop, and desktop computers allow students and teachers to connect to this global hypermedia environment using wired and, increasingly, wireless networks, thus providing countless opportunities for access to educational hypermedia and information resources.
On the negative side, however, a critical look at principled research into learning with hypermedia, in contrast to information dissemination and access, has been decidedly mixed. Many earlier hypermedia systems were criticized for focusing on the technology rather than cognitive and learning issues and for being atheoretical (Dillon and Gabbard 1998; Jacobson 1994; Tergan 1997). Of course, there has been research documenting factors associated with educationally effective hypermedia systems (including new adaptive hypermedia approaches), but there continues to be theoretical and methodological criticisms of much of the hypertext and hypermedia literature (Azevedo 2005; Shapiro and Niederhauser 2003). Given that research on the design of powerful and educationally effective hypermedia systems appears to have reached an impressionistic vista, how might work in this area advance?
Abstract This article offers principles that contribute to developing the aesthetics of instructional design. Rather than describing merely the surface qualities of things and events, the concept of aesthetics as applied here pertains to heightened, integral experience. Aesthetic experiences are those that are immersive, infused with meaning, and felt as coherent and complete. Any transformative learning experience will have significant aesthetic qualities, and all instructional situations can benefit from attention to these qualities. Drawn from aesthetics theory and research and informed by current ID and learning theories, a set of five first principles and twelve guidelines for their application are described. The principles are not only compatible with existing ID theory bases but can complement and support that theory by offering ways to embody it in engaging learning experiences.
Keywords Aesthetics - Instructional design - Learning experience - Principles of instruction
Abstract In the context of continuous innovations in information and communication technology (ICT) and its impact on higher education, this study explored the integration of instructional technology (IT) by university lecturers in pre-service secondary school teacher education programs in Zimbabwe. Specifically, the study examined how lecturers integrate IT into their instruction, and the constraints they face. Twenty-one lecturers in the colleges of education at three universities participated. The data collection methods used are questionnaires, interviews and analysis of documents. Analysis of data was inductive, employing Miles and Huberman’s interactive data analysis model. Findings show that lecturers’ computer proficiency and competencies were at the basic level in Internet usage, with little confidence shown in basic productivity software skills and in IT integration tasks and processes. The lecturers’ integration of IT was at the Entry and Adoption stages. Institutional support was characterized by poor availability and access to appropriate technological tools by both lecturers and students, and in the context of a hyper-inflationary operating environment, constraints ranged from lack of institutional funding, to the absence of an IT integration policy framework, and the lack of appropriate initial and continuous staff development. This study is part of the nucleus of instructional technology research in the Zimbabwean context. It is hoped that insights gleaned will influence policy, practice and future research. From a global perspective, this study will add to the limited knowledge and literature on instructional technology integration in “developing” and/or low-income countries like Zimbabwe.
Keywords Instructional technology - Educational technology - Technology integration - Constraints/barriers to integration - Teacher education - Professional development
Abstract
Meaningful learning requires deep engagement with ideas. Deep engagement is supported by the critical thinking skill of argumentation. Learning to argue represents an important way of thinking that facilitates conceptual change and is essential for problem solving. In order to appropriately apply argumentation practices to learning, we first discuss reasons for using argumentation in learning environments or instruction. Next, we describe the skills of argumentation along with difficulties that learners experience when trying to argue. Following a brief description of the kinds of argumentation to persuade an audience of the validity of your position or solution (rhetorical) or to attempt to resolve differences in opinions or solutions (dialectical), we describe methods and guidelines for eliciting arguments from students. We conclude with processes for assessing the quality of student-generated arguments.
Keywords Argumentation - Problem solving - Computer-supported collaborative argumentation
Abstract The purpose of this randomized experiment was to compare the performance of high-, average-, and low-achieving middle school students who were assessed with parallel versions of a computer-based test (CBT) or a paper-pencil test (PPT). Tests delivered in interactive, immersive environments like the CBT may have the advantage of providing teachers with diagnostic tools that can lead to instruction tailored to the needs of students at different achievement levels. To test the feasibility of CBT, students were randomly assigned to the CBT or PPT test conditions to measure what they had learned from an instructional method called enhanced anchored math instruction. Both assessment methods showed that students benefited from instruction and differentiated students by achievement status. The navigation maps generated from the CBT revealed that the low-achieving students were able to navigate the test, spent about the same amount of time solving the subproblems as the more advanced students, and made use of the learning scaffolds.
Keywords Classroom learning - Mathematics - Interactive learning environments - Low achievers - Assessment
Abstract Learning objects are interactive web-based tools that support the learning of specific concepts by enhancing, amplifying, and/or guiding the cognitive processes of learners. Research on the impact, effectiveness, and usefulness of learning objects is limited, partially because comprehensive, theoretically based, reliable, and valid evaluation tools are scarce, particularly in the K-12 environment. The purpose of the following study was to investigate a Learning Object Evaluation Scale for Students (LOES-S) based on three key constructs gleaned from 10 years of learning object research: learning, quality or instructional design, and engagement. Tested on over 1100 middle and secondary school students, the data generated using the LOES-S showed acceptable internal reliability, face validity, construct validity, convergent validity and predictive validity.
Keywords Evaluate - Assess - Quality - Scale - Secondary school - Middle school - Learning object
Abstract
Three related studies replicated and extended previous work (J.A. Danielson et al. (2003), Educational Technology Research and Development, 51(3), 63–81) involving the Diagnostic Pathfinder (dP) (previously Problem List Generator [PLG]), a cognitive tool for learning diagnostic problem solving. In studies 1 and 2, groups of 126 and 113 veterinary students, respectively, used the dP to complete case-based homework; groups of 120 and 199, respectively, used an alternative method. Students in the dP groups scored significantly higher (p = .000 and .003, respectively) on final exams than those in control groups. In the third study, 552 veterinary students responding to a questionnaire indicated that the dP’s gating and data synthesis activities aided learning. The dP’s feedback and requirement of completeness appear to aid learning most.
Keywords Cognitive Load Theory - Cognitive Tools - Diagnostic Problem Solving - Feedback - Gating
Abstract
Scientific communication in the field of educational technology was examined by analyzing references from and citations to articles published in Educational Technology Research and Development (ETR&D) for the period 1990–2004 with particular emphasis on other journals found in the citation record. Data were collected on the 369 core articles found in the 60 issues published during that time period, their reference lists (containing over 14,805 individual items), and citations of those articles in other journals (1,896 entries). The top cited and citing journals during that time period are listed. Nine symbiotic journals (i.e. those that are most cited by ETR&D and frequently cite it) were identified: Contemporary Educational Psychology, Educational Psychologist, Instructional Science, Journal of Computer-Based Instruction (no longer published), Journal of Educational Computing Research, Journal of Educational Psychology, Journal of Educational Research, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, and the Review of Educational Research. The results provide an in-depth, quantitative view of informal connections within the field via the citation record. Implications for further research and the potential influence of new technologies on scientific communication are also discussed.
Keywords Citation research - Bibliometrics - Scholarship - Scientific communication
Many people have a vested interest in K-12 education. We consist of students, teachers, administrators, parents, and community members. Given the plethora of stakeholders in education, it is understandable that there are many conflicts around how K-12 education is organized, evaluated, and structured in America. Christensen, Horn, and Johnson address the school battleground in their book, Disrupting Class. They look at the topic through a unique lens—a business perspective utilizing disruptive innovation theory. Specifically, they analyze how disruptive innovations can move schools from a monolithic structure that inhibits student performance to an intrinsically motivating student-centric classroom. This gives the book a unique flavor that one may not find in other books addressing school reform and reorganization.
So what’s wrong with schools in the USA? The authors address some common complaints—schools are underfunded, there aren’t enough computers in the classroom, students aren’t interested and parents aren’t active, the teaching model is broken, teachers unions are not putting enough emphasis on students, and assessment of school performance is flawed. Although all of these issues are impeding the United State’s success, there is a bigger reason why schools struggle to improve. The authors assert that the root cause is a lack of student’s intrinsic motivation, occurring “when the work itself stimulates and compels an individual to stay with the task because the task by itself is inherently fun and enjoyable” (p. 7). Making schools more intrinsically motivating occurs when customized education is geared toward specific learning styles.
Abstract
While literature suggests that college students may be less reluctant to seek help in online rather than traditional courses, little is known about how online instructors give help in ways that lead to increased student help seeking and academic success. In this study, we used theories and research on learning assistance and scaffolding, teacher immediacy, social presence, and academic help seeking to explore through a cross-case study design how three online instructors differed in their use of cognitive and social supports and how those differences related to student perceptions of support, help seeking, and performance. Primary data sources included all course postings by the instructors, interviews with the instructors, observational field notes on course discussions, student interviews, and final student grades. Archived course documents and student discussion postings were secondary data sources. Data analysis revealed that while all instructors provided cognitive and social support, they varied in their level of questioning, use of direct instruction, support for task structuring, and attention to group dynamics. This variation in teaching presence related to differences across the courses in student perceptions of support, student help seeking in course discussions, and final course grades. Implications for online teaching and suggestions for further research are offered.
Keywords Online teaching - Instructional scaffolding - Cognitive learning support - Social learning support - Teaching presence - Social presence - Academic help seeking
Abstract Many researchers use information and communications technology (ICT)-tools to augment learning in a great variety of tasks. Their effects are generally measured in terms of intended outcomes. This article argues for the use of additional, more general measures to obtain a more complete impression of the effects of ICT-tools. The first study presented in this article shows why tools should not only be studied in terms of their specific intended outcomes, but also in terms of their effects on working memory, and the cognitive mechanisms needed to achieve the intended outcomes. The second study uses cognitive load measurements and stimulated recall interviews to obtain a more comprehensive view of the effects of learning tools. Results suggest that traditional outcome measures need to be complemented with quantitative and qualitative measures of cognitive processes to substantiate conclusions about intended effects of ICT-tools.
Keywords Cognitive load - Stimulated recall interviews - ICT-tools - Complex problem solving - Negotiation - Common ground
Abstract This article reports findings on a study of educational computer games used within various classroom situations. Employing an across-stage, mixed method model, the study examined whether educational computer games, in comparison to traditional paper-and-pencil drills, would be more effective in facilitating comprehensive math learning outcomes, and whether alternative classroom goal structures would enhance or reduce the effects of computer games. The findings indicated that computer games, compared with paper-and-pencil drills, were significantly more effective in promoting learning motivation but not significantly different in facilitating cognitive math test performance and metacognitive awareness. Additionally, this study established that alternative classroom goal structures mediated the effects of computer games on mathematical learning outcomes. Cooperative goal structure, as opposed to competitive and individualistic structures, significantly enhanced the effects of computer games on attitudes toward math learning.
Keywords Instructional gaming - Media in education - Classroom goal structures
Abstract Faculty use of technology is a critical issue in higher education; administrators and students are expecting faculty instruction to incorporate technology in classroom and distance education. Competition is demanding technologically proficient graduates for schools and colleges. Research indicates that computer self-efficacy (CSE) may be one determinant of who uses technology and who does not. A survey of education faculty at the Lebanese University in Beirut, Lebanon, conducted in 2006, revealed varying degrees of CSE; of 127 respondents, 14 had low levels of CSE; 68 were at a moderate level, and 45 self-evaluated themselves to have high CSE. Although other barriers may deter the implementation of technology in teaching, strategies and techniques for increasing CSE should be developed. For those with low CSE, special attention must be given to enhancing their levels of CSE.
Keywords International faculty development - Instructional technology - Computer self-efficacy in higher education - Educational technology in Lebanon
Abstract
Patriot High School (PHS) adopted a remediation strategy to help its 10th-grade students at risk of failing the Math portion of MCAS, the state’s end of year competency exam. The centerpiece of that strategy was a computer-based instructional (CBI) course. PHS used a commercially available CBI product to align the course content with the competencies covered on the MCAS exam. This case study examines the overall effectiveness of the PHS strategies, and in particular, the role of CBI. Participant MCAS scores and CBI performance (measured by module-mastery data) are analyzed, and an interview with the course instructor is summarized. Finally, PHS scores were compared to the overall state MCAS scores for the same years. Overall scores of all 10th graders increased significantly compared to their 8th-grade scores, students who participated in the CBI course improved more than the students who did not. The passing rate at PHS improved from 40% in 1999 to 84% in 2001, compared to an improvement of from 47% to 75% statewide. A significant correlation was identified between the MCAS scores and the program usage data, with student CBI module mastery correlated with higher MCAS scores. Overall, the instructor was positive about the impact of the course and believed that the course gave many under-performers a chance to succeed when more traditional methods had failed. It seems likely that CBI contributed to PHS’s success. Although we report herein on just one case, we argue that CBI might play an important a role in the high stakes test environment in the USA and eleswhere.
Keywords Computer based instruction - High stakes tests - Algebra - Evaluation
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of collaboration mode and group composition during a computer-mediated collaborative (CMC) program. Six intact sections of a computer literacy course were assigned to either a face-to-face or a virtual, online collaboration treatment condition. Groups consisted of homogeneous lower-ability, homogeneous higher-ability, or heterogeneous-ability pairs. The study examined the effects of collaboration mode and group composition on individual posttest performance, group project performance, collaborative interaction behavior, and attitudes towards the instruction. Results indicated that virtual dyads exhibited significantly more questioning behaviors and significantly better project performance than those who collaborated face-to-face. By comparison, students in the face-to-face condition performed significantly better on the individual posttest than those in the virtual online condition. Findings suggest that both virtual and face-to-face collaboration can be effective in achieving learning goals. However, consideration should be given to the collaborative structure of the lesson and the type of task in the design of CMC environments.
Keywords Virtual collaboration - Computer-mediated instruction - Interactions - Ability-grouping - E-learning
Abstract High school students can access original scientific research articles on the Internet, but may have trouble understanding them. To address this problem of online literacy, the authors developed a computer-based prototype for guiding students’ comprehension of scientific articles. High school students were asked to read an original scientific research article about the effects of drug or alcohol abuse, which was presented on a computer screen either with computer-based comprehension aids or without aids. The aids provided background text and animations including answers given by the article authors. Across two experiments involving different schools and different research articles, the comprehension aids group performed better than the control group on a comprehension test concerning the article (d = +0.79 in Experiment 1 and d = +0.82 in Experiment 2) and rated the content of article as less difficult to read (d = +0.96 in Experiment 1 and d = +0.69 in Experiment 2). In addition, the comprehension aids group reported more positive motivational beliefs than the control group concerning understanding what scientists do (d = +0.51 in Experiment 1 and d = +0.56 in Experiment 2), appraising the article as worthwhile (d = +0.80 for Experiment 1 and d = +0.70 for Experiment 2), and being interested in reading another research article (d = +0.19 in Experiment 1 and d = +0.58 in Experiment 2). The groups did not differ on their attitudes concerning a career as a scientist or about alcohol and drug abuse. Overall, computer-based comprehension aids can help guide students’ comprehension processes for an original scientific research article, which in turn can improve their appreciation of what scientists do.
Keywords Online literacy - Science education - Reading comprehension
Abstract
Experienced teachers, tasked with mentoring, often find themselves inundated with large amounts of didactic information as they prepare for guiding new interns. In an effort to develop training that would both prepare new mentors and revitalize experienced mentors, a state Educational Professional Standards Board enlisted the help of instructional designers to develop an innovative online course. The focal point of the course design is a narrative simulation, embedded with standards-based information, that provides user-selected, multiple outcomes as decision points to support dialogic reflection. Theoretical and practical considerations for conceptualizing this multiple outcome strategy, quality review components and design specifications are discussed.
Keywords Cognition - Design - Educational reform - Instruction - Multiple outcomes - Narrative - Online training - Simulation - Teacher mentoring
Abstract
This paper posits that authenticity is an aspect of both the context and the process of learning. These two aspects cannot be seen in isolation and must be analyzed as one unity. We refer to this coupling relationship as the context–process authenticity. Existing learning and instructional approaches associated with authenticity, such as simulations, participation, and co-evolution privilege the authenticity of professional practices and do not adequately tackle the issue of the transitions across contexts. To avoid demeaning the authenticity of schools, we recommend other approaches, which emphasize the identity enculturation aspect in diverse communities. Furthermore, we argue for a context–process authenticity continuum. This continuum encompasses both school and professional communities and the context–process authenticity coupling. Implications are discussed with respect to the proposed context–process authenticity continuum.
Keywords Authenticity - Identity - Situated cognition - Communities - Boundary crossing - Learning and instructional approaches
Abstract In this study, we examined the effectiveness of instructional materials designed to control redundancy and split attention in the teaching of complex orthopedic physical therapy skills. Participants included 41 first-year physical therapy students. The modified instruction group received a modified unit of instruction designed to reduce cognitive load, while the control group received a traditionally designed unit of instruction. Four hypotheses were tested relating to achievement on cognitive and psychomotor tests, ratings of cognitive load, and task completion times. The multivariate analysis yielded significant results for three of the four hypotheses (ES = +0.52). As predicted, the participants receiving the modified instructional materials scored significantly higher on the written post-test and psychomotor tasks, while reporting a lower level of cognitive load on both tasks. These results suggest that designers can increase the germane cognitive load by reducing the extraneous cognitive load through good instructional and message design practices.
Keywords Instructional design - Cognitive load - Learning - Message design
Abstract Although learning styles are considered as an important factor in education, students often have to learn in courses that do not support their learning styles. A challenge for technology facilitated learning is therefore to assist and help students to cope with courses that do not match their learning styles by training and developing their less preferred skills. In this paper, the interactions between students’ learning styles, their behaviour, and their performance in an online course that is mismatched regarding their learning styles were analysed. The results show which learners need more help in mastering mismatched courses, help in getting a better understanding about how students with good performance record and poor performance record learn with respect to their learning styles, and provide information about how to identify learners who might have difficulties in learning based on their behaviour.
Keywords Learning styles - Student performance - Mismatched courses - Adaptivity
Abstract
The amount of resources being poured by Western universities, companies, and governments into creating educational content to be exported (via the Internet) to other cultures is astounding. Those assigned to accomplish this task are left with the great challenge of meeting the needs of learners who come from cultures that are foreign to them, and who often have very different abilities and expectations than originally assumed. This study explores the cultural competence in the lived experience of 12 professionals who have been involved with such efforts. Often they have had to question their assumptions, recognizing flaws in their own thinking and in the organizations that support them, and tried to alter their practice accordingly. Their awareness of cultural differences and the importance and impact of these differences in their practice will be discussed.
Keywords Culture - Cultural competence - Instructional design - Instructional design practice - Online instruction - Global - International
Abstract To examine trends in educational practice research, this article conducted a survey and analysis of factors affecting the review of research papers in the field of the educational technology in Japan. Two factors, namely, practical orientation and theoretical orientation, were extracted from 63 survey responses, and scores from members of a Japanese academic society were compared with the scores of its editorial board. Results show that the two factor scores were not correlated to each other, and they are independent measures for any evaluation or review of research articles. Also, there was no significant difference between society members and editorial board members, i.e., their preferences when reviewing research papers were identical. For the second part of this study, a group composed of anonymous members of an editorial board conducted a paper review of 12 published “practical papers” and 11 published “general papers.” Results indicated that there was no significant difference between the two categories. The final rating scores of these 23 papers were analyzed using a decision-tree rating model. Results also indicated that for publication, papers need to contribute to theoretical research, in addition to contributing to basic educational practice research in educational technology.
Keywords Practical research - Paper review - Practical emphasis - Theoretical emphasis - Educational technology
Abstract
The purpose of this research was to address the current and prospective views on educational technology (ET) in order to discover the difficulties and develop its utilization in Omani higher education. The main instruments used to carry out this research were two questionnaires: the faculty members’ questionnaire, and the technical/administrative staff questionnaire. One hundred and fifty-nine participants were involved in the study. They represented all educational technologists who have been with the public and private Omani higher education institutions. The findings show a tendency for future expansion with less expensive technologies and the need for training. Some impediments of ET use were also found. Important recommendations from this study include: the need to support Omani higher education institutions with technical and human resources to increase and activate the use/number of new instructional media and equipment.
Keywords Educational technology - Utilization - Impediments - Training - Oman - Higher education
A brief history/some background
In the 1950s, the idea of “universal design” first emerged. At the time it was articulated as barrier-free design, an idea growing in concept in Europe, Japan and the US. It is best described in the early stages as a growing global awareness of the necessity for and benefits of building environments that were obstacle-free. The early emphasis was on removing obstacles for people with physical disabilities—when a building was designed for “universal” access, it would by design accommodate users with disabilities. By the 1970s, the idea had matured and gained political strength. During the ‘70s, US architect Michael Bednar described universal design as an awareness that everyone’s functional capacity is enhanced when environmental barriers are removed. The best example to date remains the curb cut—a city planning feature designed to benefit individuals in wheelchairs, but that turned out to benefit many others such as joggers, parents pushing strollers, etc. That awareness would soon become a cornerstone for design practices in fields such as architecture, civil engineering, and human factors engineering. The political strength especially came from the disability rights movement, focusing on the rights of individuals with disabilities.
By the 1980s, this concept had gained strength in numbers (or critical mass; Rogers 1995). In 1987, the World Design Congress passed a resolution stating that designers should factor disability and aging into designs, adding professional strength to the approach (Adaptive Environments 2006). A number of professions adopted universal design as a core tenet of professional practice: when a supermarket or a building or a city infrastructure or an airplane is designed and built, it should be able to accommodate a wide range of users. This “wide range” was not simply a range of physical abilities, but a range of ages and life stages—what is called “lifespan design.” Any person, regardless of age or physical limitations or stage of life would be able to access physical environments (Mace et al. 1991). In 1987, Ron Mace coined the term “universal design” to try to differentiate from accessible design. He said, “it’s not a new science, a style, or unique in any way. It requires only an awareness of need and market and a commonsense approach to making everything we design and produce usable by everyone to the greatest extent possible.”
By the 1990s, ADA was signed into law, adding legal strength. The legal impetus drove widespread change (or at least widespread compliance). Today, companies, producers, service providers, etc., are required to be Section 508 compliant (added in 1998 to the Rehabilitation Act). Education has been somewhat behind the curve in this area—hence the book under review here.
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Abstract Essays are an important measure of complex learning, but pronouns can confound an author’s intended meaning for both readers and text analysis software. This descriptive investigation considers the effect of pronouns on a computer-based text analysis approach, ALA-Reader, which uses students’ essays as the data source for deriving individual and group knowledge representations. Participants in an undergraduate business course (n = 45) completed an essay as part of the course final examination. The investigators edited the essays to replace the most common pronouns (their, it, and they) with the appropriate referent. The original unedited and the edited essays were processed with ALA-Reader using two different approaches, sentence and linear aggregate. These data were then analyzed using a Pathfinder network approach. The average group network similarity values comparing the original to the edited essays were large (i.e., about 90% overlap) but the linear aggregate approach obtained larger values than the sentence aggregate approach. The linear aggregate approach also provided a better measure of individual essay scores (e.g., r = 0.74 with composite rater scores). This data provides some support that the ALA-Reader linear approach is adequate for capturing group knowledge structure representations from essays. Further development of the ALA-Reader approach is warranted.
Keywords Mental models - Measuring knowledge structure - Pathfinder networks - Essays
Abstract This is a report of one case of a design and development research study that aimed to validate an overlay instructional design model incorporating the theory of multiple intelligences into instructional systems design. After design and expert review model validation, The Multiple Intelligence (MI) Design Model, used with an Instructional Systems Design (ISD) Model, was tested for use by four practicing instructional designers. Instruction developed for learners using this model was then evaluated measuring post-test and attitudinal scores with 102 participants. This report also provides a reflection on the lessons learned in conducting design and development research on model validation. The procedures and findings have implications for the processes involved in instructional design model validation through designer use and program implementation.
Keywords Design and development research - Model validation - Instructional design - Internal validation - External validation - Multiple intelligences
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of representational scripting on non-expert student learning while collaboratively carrying out complex learning-tasks. The premise underlying this research is that effective cognitive activities would be evoked when complex learning-tasks are structured into phase-related part-tasks and are supported by providing students with part-task-congruent external representations for each phase; representational scripting. It was hypothesized that this approach would lead to increased individual learning and better complex learning-task performance. In groups, 96 secondary education students worked on a complex business-economics problem in four experimental conditions, namely one condition in which the groups received representations that were part-task-congruent for all three phases and three conditions in which the groups received one of these representations for all three phases (i.e., part-task-incongruent for two of the three phases). The results indicate that groups receiving part-task-congruent representations in a phased order performed better on the complex learning-task, though this did not result in increased individual learning.
Keywords External representations - Complex learning-tasks - Computer supported collaborative learning - Representational scripting
Abstract
The CASCADE-MUCH system was designed to help teacher-designers in Shanghai, China with the development of instructional scenarios for multimedia curricula. After four rounds of prototyping, a summative evaluation was carried out to assess practicality. Results showed that the system was practical for the intended target users in Shanghai and also had potential for users in other contexts. The purpose of this article is to present the design process of the CASCADE-MUCH program and discuss how the evolutionary prototyping approach improved program quality and contributed to the designer’s knowledge growth.
Keywords Development research - EPSS · Evolutionary prototyping - Teacher–designers
Abstract This paper presents a case study of the design and implementation of a master’s level research course. Factors that defined the curriculum design problem included the subject matter, a view of learning as a change in identity, and the role of technology in curriculum design. Both the design process and results of research on the implementation of the course are described. The paper concludes with a retrospective discussion of lessons learned, including parallels of (a) user-centered technology design with our final approach to curriculum design and (b) socially constructed views of technology with socially constructed views of learning.
Keywords Social constructivism - Research education - Technological determinism - Mobile technology
Abstract This paper reports on a design-based research (DBR) process for designing, implementing, and refining a problem-based learning (PBL) course on educational digital video (DV) use and production at the University of Lapland’s Faculty of Education. The study focuses on the students’ learning processes and outcomes from the viewpoint of meaningful learning. The research subjects included two pilot students and ten students enrolled in the course. To promote the reliability of the findings, data of various kinds and from multiple sources were used, including video recordings of the PBL tutorial sessions. The results suggest that PBL offers a good model to support students’ knowledge and skills in producing and using educational DV. In addition, the results suggest that DV production can be used as a method to learn about the subject matter of the DVs.
Keywords Design-based research - Meaningful learning - Problem-based learning - Students-as-video-producers
Abstract
This design-based research study is aimed at two goals: (1) developing a feasible case-based instructional model that could enhance college students’ ill-structured problem solving abilities, while (2) implementing the model to improve teacher education students’ real-world problem solving abilities to deal with dilemmas faced by practicing teachers in elementary classrooms. To achieve these goals, an online case-based learning environment for classroom management problem solving (CBL-CMPS) was developed based on Jonassen’s (in: Reigeluth (ed.) Instructional-Design Theories and Models: A New Paradigm of Instructional Theory, 1999) constructivist learning environment model and the general process of ill-structured problem solving (1997). Two successive studies, in which the effectiveness of the CBL-CMPS was tested while the CBL-CMPS was revised, showed that the individual components of the CBL-CMPS promoted ill-structured problem solving abilities respectively, and that the CBL-CMPS as a whole learning environment was effective to a degree for the transfer of learning in ill-structured problem solving. The potential, challenge, and implications of the CBL-CMPS are discussed.
Keywords Case-based learning - Constructivist learning environment design - Design-based research - Ill-structured problem solving - Teacher education - Classroom management
Abstract Causal reasoning represents one of the most basic and important cognitive processes that underpin all higher-order activities, such as conceptual understanding and problem solving. Hume called causality the “cement of the universe” [Hume (1739/2000). Causal reasoning is required for making predictions, drawing implications and inferences, and explaining phenomena. Causal relations are usually more complex than learners understand. In order to be able to understand and apply causal relationships, learners must be able to articulate numerous covariational attributes of causal relationships, including direction, valency, probability, duration, responsiveness, as well as mechanistic attributes, including process, conjunctions/disjunctions, and necessity/sufficiency. We describe different methods for supporting causal learning, including influence diagrams, simulations, questions, and different causal modeling tools, including expert systems, systems dynamics tools, and causal modeling tools. Extensive research is needed to validate and contrast these methods for supporting causal reasoning.
Keywords Causal reasoning - Causality - Instructional strategies
Abstract
We report on an investigation into the design, development, implementation, and evaluation of an informational and instructional Website in order to generate guidelines for instructional designers of read/write Web environments. We describe the process of design and development research, the problem addressed, the theory-based solution, and the evaluation and testing of that solution. Based on our experience, we then identify sixteen guidelines for future designers and developers of read/write Web-based learning environments. The study demonstrates how read/write Web technologies can be used to address general problems that have intrinsic societal importance; examines implementation of a read/write technology in a real-life context, thereby testing distributed cognitions learning theory; informs the design of similar environments; and provides grounded theory for the design and development of read/write Web learning environments.
Keywords Design and development research - Read/write Web - Web 2.0 - Distributed cognitions - Social constructivism
Abstract This study adopted design and development research methodology (Richey & Klein, Design and development research: Methods, strategies, and issues, 2007) to systematically investigate the process of applying instructional design principles, human–computer interaction, and software engineering to a performance support system (PSS) for behavior management in a classroom. The purpose was to examine how a proposed instructional design framework based on Ausubel’s (The psychology of meaningful verbal learning, 1963) advance organizer theoretical approach could be used to address inherent problems of technically driven PSSs. Development data were collected from a six-phase participatory rapid prototyping process using both qualitative and quantitative methods. Findings indicated that (a) the advance organizer concept combined with a matrix design metaphor provided an effective way to illustrate conceptual connections and relations among PSS modules and their elaborated information, (b) the system served as a reference to support participants for exchanging ideas with other teachers as well as with parents of students, and (c) the rapid prototyping process established parameters that helped the project team maintain a focus on users and collect data useful for advancing to a higher phase of system development. Potential drawbacks pertaining to the proposed design strategies and their possible corrective actions are also reported and discussed.
Keywords Advance organizer - Development research - Performance support system
Abstract Although research emphasizes the importance of integrating technology into the curriculum, the use of technology can only be effective if teachers themselves possess the expertise to use technology in a meaningful way in the classroom. The aim of this study was to assist Egyptian teachers in developing teaching and learning through the application of a particular digital technology. Students were encouraged to work through the process of producing their own digital stories using MS Photo Story, while being introduced to desktop production and editing tools. They also presented, published and shared their own stories with other students in the class. Quantitative and qualitative instruments, including digital story evaluation rubric, integration of technology observation instruments and interviews for evaluating the effectiveness of digital storytelling into learning were implemented to examine the extent to which students were engaged in authentic learning tasks using digital storytelling. The findings from the analysis of students-produced stories revealed that overall, students did well in their projects and their stories met many of the pedagogical and technical attributes of digital stories. The findings from classroom observations and interviews revealed that despite problems observed and reported by teachers, they believed that the digital storytelling projects could increase students’ understanding of curricular content and they were willing to transform their pedagogy and curriculum to include digital storytelling.
Keywords Digital storytelling - Engaged learning - Photo story - Technology integration
Abstract
Students learned about teaching principles with a multimedia program that either did not include a classroom exemplar illustrating how to apply the learned principles to the teaching practice (control group) or included a classroom exemplar in video, animation, or text format. Across two experiments, video and animation groups reported more favorable attitudes towards learning and were better able to apply the learned principles than the control group. Text and control groups did not differ in their learning or attitudes towards learning, suggesting that format is an important factor in determining the effectiveness of classroom exemplars as pedagogical tools for teacher education. Results encourage the use of visual classroom exemplars to promote the application of theory into practice.
Keywords Exemplars - Modeling - Video - Animation - Application - Learning - Motivation
Abstract In this essay, we state that establishing technology curricula by national governments causes a shift in the policy actions of educational technology support: from a technical rationale with a main focus on funding and resources to a pedagogical rationale with a main focus on student competencies. We illustrate our point of view by describing the formal educational technology curriculum recently administered by the government in Flanders. This curriculum is written in terms of attainment targets and has clear implications on the nature of educational technology which is no longer dependent on teachers’ individual efforts or willingness, but is becoming compulsory at the school level. Furthermore, we present two levers that facilitate the integration process of educational technology in general and the realization of technology curricula in particular. Technology coordinators should act more as curriculum managers and change agents, and schools should jointly establish a technology policy plan.
Keywords Curriculum - Technology coordinator - Technology plan - School policy
Abstract This paper examines and analyses where and how information and communication technologies (ICT) are integrated in Singapore schools to engage students in higher-order thinking activities. Taking the activity system as a unit of analysis, the study documents the actual processes and sociocultural elements that engage students in higher-order thinking. By employing methods such as observations, focus group discussions with students, and face-to-face interviews with teachers, ICT-coordinators and principals, an account of how the activity systems within and between classrooms, and the schools are generated. Based on the analysis of the data from 10 schools, issues in the learning environment are discussed: Necessary (classroom management and orienting activities) and sufficient conditions (scaffolding activities and supporting school policies) for effective ICT integration in the classroom. The account also highlights the constraints of time and lack of knowledge and experience in the contexts that the teachers are working under, and how these constraints are addressed by supporting school policies in the larger sociocultural setting of the school. This account provides a sample of pedagogical and sociocultural issues that are discussed over the course and at the end of the project. Like a good guidebook, the study sensitizes the audience to what is likely to happen given a particular objective, constraint, or design.
Keywords ICT integration - Activity theory - Pedagogical practices - Policies - Higher order thinking
Abstract The focus of this study was to understand knowledge flows among teachers by examining what types of knowledge was shared by teachers, as well as what motivates or hinders teachers to share knowledge online. We examined an electronic mailing list (listserv) supporting a community of practice of literacy teachers. Data were gathered on the teachers in the listserv through online observations. Additional data were collected through semi-structured telephone interviews with 20 teachers. Findings suggest that two motives of community involvement––collectivism, and principlism appear to be the main motivators for knowledge sharers to share knowledge, while lack of knowledge and competing priority appear to be the main barriers. Practical implications for knowledge sharing and suggestions for future research are discussed. The findings of this study inform teachers, listserv moderators, teacher associations, as well as researchers of educational technology who are interested in knowledge sharing among teachers within communities of practice mediated by computer networks.
Keywords Teacher knowledge sharing - Community of practice - Online
Abstract
This paper explores the design of a Web-based tutorial for Activity Analysis offered within an undergraduate course of occupational therapy and how its design features influenced meaningful learning from the students’ perspective. This tutorial, using a case-based format, offers a learner-directed approach to students and the application of Activity Analysis, a clinical practice tool. The design is based on principles of meaningful learning for on-line instruction (Jonassen, Educational Technology, 35, 60–63, 1995) and instructional theories. Analysis of feedback from learners identifies the salient attributes of the tutorial on meaningful learning.
Keywords Activity analysis - Instructional theories - Meaningful learning - Web-based instruction
Abstract The form factors of handheld computers make them increasingly popular among K-12 educators. Although some compelling examples of educational software for handhelds exist, we believe that the potential of this platform are just being discovered. This paper reviews innovative applications for mobile computing for both education and entertainment purposes, and then proposes a framework for approaching handheld applications we call “augmented reality educational gaming.” We then describe our development process in creating a development platform for augmented reality games that draws from rapid prototyping, learner-centered software, and contemporary game design methodologies. We provide a narrative case study of our development activities spread across five case studies with classrooms, and provide a design narrative explaining this development process and articulate an approach to designing educational software on emerging technology platforms. Pedagogical, design, and technical conclusions and implications are discussed.
Keywords Augmented reality - Handheld computing - Design research
Abstract
In recent years, considerable attention has been paid to the alleged changes in the ways the so-called digital generation communicates and learns. Most of the commentary has been based on anecdotes, observations and opinions. The lack of empirical evidence in this matter suggests that it may be time to begin the process of gathering data to confirm these views. At the forefront is the issue of which learner characteristics have changed, if any, and, accordingly, which evaluation tools are best suited to evaluate them. One mechanism found to be valid and reliable is the matching Familiar Figures Test (MFFT). Developed over thirty years ago to measure cognitive tempo on an impulsive-reflective axis, this instrument was subsequently adapted into a twenty-question version. Cairns and Cammock, the researchers who modified the original into the MFFT-20, published the results of several reliability studies to demonstrate its overall effectiveness. This preliminary study is an attempt to begin the empirical verification process of using cognitive tempo as a relevant assessment tool. Two groups of K-12 students from different eras were investigated to determine if comparing cognitive tempos between subjects who took the original MFFT-20 to those who live in the current media-centric society provides any insights as to possible differences in the visual cognitive processing skills and preferences. The results of the comparative analysis, along with possible implications for teachers and instructional designers are discussed.
Keywords Cognitive tempo - Cognitive style - Cognitive load - Cognitive processing - Impulsive-reflective - Games generation - Media-centric youths - Matching Familiar Figures Test
Abstract This article reviews recent evaluation studies of online learning communities to provide a systematic understanding of how such communities are evaluated. Forty-two representative studies were selected and categorized into a newly developed taxonomy of online learning community evaluations. This taxonomy is divided into four components: evaluation purpose, evaluation approach, measures for evaluation, and evaluation techniques. The findings suggest that it is inappropriate to conceptualize evaluation of such communities as a one-size-fits-all, generalizable measure of “good” or “bad.” Instead, we recommend a comprehensive, on-going, diagnostic approach to measuring clusters of indicators, or syndromes, of a particular OLC and examining the causal relation assumed by the evaluators between what is measured and the success of OLC as an imputed outcome.
Keywords Online learning communities - Evaluation - Literature review - Sensitivity analysis
Abstract This article describes the development and evaluation of STARstreams, a pilot effort to utilize videos and online discussions in a conflict resolution curriculum that acknowledges the inherent socio-personal aspects of conflict. The STARstreams curricula includes a set of video-based scenarios depicting conflict situations and potential resolutions to those conflicts, a web-based conferencing system for cross-classroom discussion of the scenarios, and a handbook to guide teacher implementation of the curriculum. These materials were evaluated in a 2-week field trial with four geographically diverse 5th and 6th grade classrooms. The experimental STARstreams curriculum was well-received by participating students and teachers, engendered extensive participation in online discussions about the scenarios, and had a statistically significant effect on measures of social problem solving, self-efficacy toward conflict resolution, and perceived value and satisfaction with the materials. The overall program and its development are described; classroom experiences, online discussion, and quantitative outcome measures are presented; and implications for future efforts are discussed.
Keywords Conflict resolution - Social problem-solving - Technology - Computers - Internet - Collaboration
Abstract The aim of this study was to examine the development of the metacognitive knowledge of a group of higher education students who participated actively in an experiment based on a Computer Supported Collaborative Learning environment called KnowCat. Eighteen university students participated in a 12-month learning project during which the KnowCat learning environment was used to support scaffolding process among equals during problem-solving tasks. After using KnowCat, the students were interviewed over their work in this shared workspace. Qualitative analysis revealed that the educational application of KnowCat can favour and improve the development of metacognitive knowledge.
Keywords CSCL - Metacognitive learning processes - Knowledge construction - Peer interaction - Qualitative research
Abstract
Video cases are becoming more and more prevalent throughout the United States to assist in the development and growth of preservice teachers’ instruction. This research investigates the perspectives of preservice teachers and their naïve understandings of the kinds of learning and assistance video cases can provide in their methodology courses. Personal Construct Theory was used to uncover participants’ perceptions of their needs in terms of curriculum content of video cases. Hierarchical cluster analysis revealed six distinct clusters which serve as themes for discussing the early needs of preservice teachers and how video cases might be configured to address these perceived needs. Results reveal that preservice teachers’ beliefs, though naïve, do reflect the research on the actual needs of teachers in their first years of induction and support. Perhaps if preservice teachers’ predilections are examined, this data can help guide the future implementation of video cases in their university courses.
Keywords Preservice teachers - Video cases - Personal construct theory
Abstract This study investigated the effect of well- vs. ill-structured problem types on: (a) group interactional activity, (b) evolution of group participation inequities, (c) group discussion quality, and (d) group performance in a synchronous, computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) environment. Participants were 60 11th-grade science students working in three-member groups (triads) who were randomly assigned to solve a well- or an ill-structured problem scenario on Newtonian Kinematics. Although groups solving ill-structured problems generated more problem-centered interactional activity (a positive effect), they also exhibited participation patterns that were more inequitable (a negative effect) than groups solving well-structured problems. Interestingly, inequities in member participation patterns exhibited a high sensitivity to initial exchange and tended to get “locked-in” early in the discussion, ultimately lowering the quality of discussion and, in turn, the group performance. Findings and their implications for theory, methodology, and scaffolding of CSCL groups are discussed.
Keywords Collaborative problem solving - Ill-structured problems - Participation inequity - Sensitivity to initial exchange - Well-structured problems
Abstract
This study employed an explanatory mixed methods design to examine the effects of two computer-based scaffolds on novice teachers’ reflective journal writing. The context for the study was an attempt to refine the reflective writing component of a large scale electronic portfolio system. Quantitative results indicated that the computer-based scaffolds significantly enhanced the participants’ reflective journal writing as well as the length of their written artifacts. Moreover, correlation analysis revealed that there was a positive relationship between the highest level of reflection and the length of journal writing. Three factors gleaned from qualitative data helped explain how and why the scaffolds enhanced participants’ reflective thinking, including (a) the specific requirements conveyed in the scaffolds; (b) the structure of the scaffolds; and (c) the use of the critical incidents to anchor reflective journal writing. It is hoped that the analyses and results of the current study can help inform others on how to leverage the affordances of computer-based scaffolds to augment reflective practice in technology-enhanced educational systems.
Keywords Electronic portfolios - Computer-based scaffolds - Reflective practice
Abstract There is growing concern over graduating trainee teachers’ insufficient level of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) literacy. The main purpose of this research was to describe the nature of trainee teachers’ ICT literacy at the beginning of preservice training: (a) to explore the structure and to identify the main components of ICT-related capabilities, and (b) to examine possible relationships between these components. Data from trainee teachers’ ICT literacy self-assessment survey were examined using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Two elements of ICT-related general cognitive capabilities and three elements of technical capabilities were identified, respectively: (a) problem solving, (b) communication and metacognition, (c) basic ICT capabilities, (d) analysis and production with ICT, (e) information and Internet-related capabilities. It was found that general cognitive and technical capabilities are two separate areas of ICT literacy; however basic ICT capabilities are an important component of both areas.
Keywords Higher education - ICT literacy - Preservice teachers’ training - Principal component analysis - Structural equation modeling - Self-efficacy
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the direct and indirect effects of teachers’ individual characteristics and perceptions of environmental factors that influence their technology integration in the classroom. A research-based path model was developed to explain causal relationships between these factors and was tested based on data gathered from 1,382 Tennessee public school teachers. The results provided significant evidence that the developed model is useful in explaining factors affecting technology integration and the relationships between the factors.
Keywords Technology integration - Computer use - Technology use - Computer use in education - Path model
Abstract
Field dependence–independence (FDI) has long been conceptualized and discussed as a cognitive style relevant to numerous educational approaches and outcomes. However, the FDI construct is most often measured as a cognitive ability, as opposed to a style, using instruments such as the Group-Embedded Figures test (GEFT) or the Hidden Figures Test (HFT). Specifically, FDI is typically measured as visuospatial ability and executive functioning in working memory. While measurement and use of FDI within psychological and educational research has often resulted in misleading or inconsistent discussion about cognitive styles, this review examines how the long history of FDI research continues to be relevant to contemporary instructional contexts. A broader recognition of FDI as ability is suggested in order to (a) better distinguish ability measurements from those of styles, (b) encourage a reinterpretation and awareness of theoretical connections among past studies that use instruments such as GEFT or HFT, and (c) highlight suggestions for future research and application, particularly with contemporary interactive multimedia learning tools.
Keywords Field dependence–independence - Spatial ability - Working-memory - Visuospatial sketchpad - Central executive - Interactive multimedia
Abstract
This article describes a blueprint for an online learning environment that is based on prominent instructional design and assessment theories for supporting learning in complex domains. The core of this environment consists of formative assessment tasks (i.e., assessment for learning) that center on professional situations. For each professional situation, three levels of situational complexity are defined, and within each of these three levels, tasks are offered that differ in the degree of support offered to the learner. This environment can support (beginning) professionals in complex domains in gaining insight into the available repertoire of behavior in professional situations, as well as into the quality and effectiveness of that behavior (assessment criteria), while simultaneously helping them to develop insight into the standards that their own behavior should (eventually) match.
Keywords Online learning - Formative assessment - Instructional design
Abstract During the past two decades, the popularity of computer and video games has prompted games to become a source of study for educational researchers and instructional designers investigating how various aspects of game design might be appropriated, borrowed, and re-purposed for the design of educational materials. The purpose of this paper is to present an analysis of how the structure in massively multiple online role-playing games (MMORPGs) might inform the design of interactive learning and game-based learning environments by looking at the elements which support intrinsic motivation. Specifically, this analysis presents (a) an overview of the two primary elements in MMORPGs game design: character design and narrative environment, (b) a discussion of intrinsic motivation in character role-playing, (c) a discussion of intrinsic motivational supports and cognitive support of the narrative structure of small quests, and (d) a discussion of how the narrative structure of MMORPGs might foster learning in various types of knowledge.
Keywords Computer games - Intrinsic motivation - Narrative - Learning environments
Abstract Complex computer and video games may provide a vehicle, based on appropriate theoretical concepts, to transform the educational landscape. Building on the original game object model (GOM) a new more detailed model is developed to support concepts that educational computer games should: be relevant, explorative, emotive, engaging, and include complex challenges; support authentic learning activities that are designed as narrative social spaces where learners are transformed through exploration of multiple representation, and reflection; be gender-inclusive, include non-confrontational outcomes, and provide appropriate role models; develop democracy, and social capital through dialogue that is supported by means of computer mediated-communication tools; and include challenges, puzzles or quests, which form the core of the learning process, where access to explicit knowledge, conversations, and reflection results in the construction of tacit knowledge. It is argued that the GOM version II can be used not only to support the development of educational computer games but to provide a mechanism to evaluate the use of computer games in the classroom.
Keywords Game object model - Educational games - Narrative social spaces - Ideologies - Challenges–puzzles–quests
Abstract Educators and learning theorists suggest that play is one of the most important venues for learning, and games a useful educational tool. This study considers game activity preferences of middle school-aged children, so that educational games might be made more appealing to them. Based on children’s activity modes identified in our prior research, we developed the Educational Game Preferences Survey, which collects information on children’s preferences for play activity modes, their attitudes about each activity mode, and their preferences for game characters, settings, and forms of help. Survey results suggest the appeal of the Explorative mode of play for all children, especially girls. Gender differences in children’s preferences and attitudes for Active, Strategic, and Creative play modes were also found. We close with recommendations for game design to appeal to both boys and girls, as well as for boys and girls individually, to build engagement and hopefully lead to learning.
Keywords Educational games - Game design - Gender differences - Activity modes - Game play preferences
Abstract Cases have been used in education through a variety of methods, such as case written analysis, case discussion, and case development. Recent case definitions and uses have extended their traditional uses. In case-based reasoning, cases are considered to represent knowledge, and the use of cases is integral to an individual’s problem-solving process. Case-based activity (CBA) builds on CBR research and theory, emphasizing the transition of novices toward experts’ reasoning and applications. The purpose of this paper is to present the theoretical assumptions and principles for designing grounded, web-enhanced CBA. Findings from recent implementations and implications for design are presented.
Keywords Case-based reasoning - Grounded design - Technology-enhanced learning environments
Abstract Effective and efficient measurement of the development of skill and knowledge, especially in domains of human activity that involve complex and challenging problems, is important with regard to workplace and academic performance. However, there has been little progress in the area of practical measurement and assessment, due in part to the lack of automated tools that are appropriate for assessing the acquisition and development of complex cognitive skills. In the last 2 years, an international team of researchers has developed and validated an integrated set of assessment tools called highly integrated model assessment technology and tools (HIMATT) which addresses this deficiency. HIMATT is web-based and has been shown to scale up for practical use in educational and workplace settings, unlike many of the research tools developed solely to study basic issues in human learning and performance. In this paper, we describe the functions of HIMATT and demonstrate several applications for its use. Additionally, we present two studies on the quality and usability of HIMATT. We conclude with research suggestions for the use of HIMATT and for its further development.
Keywords Mental models - Automated assessment - Knowledge representation - Cognitive structure
Abstract
A number of available resources offer guidance about hypermedia design strategies, many of which rely on principles of user-centered design. Many recent efforts, however, have focused more on developing learner-centered hypermedia. Learner-centered hypermedia is designed to help learners achieve their educational goals, rather than offer mere usability. Unfortunately, this endeavor is hamstrung by a lack of empirical research on the topic. Research conducted in my laboratory and others has provided some insight, however. It is now understood that several system and user characteristics influence outcomes of hypermedia-assisted learning (HAL). Among the most relevant factors are learners’ levels of metacognition and prior knowledge, and the interaction between these factors and hypermedia structure. By capitalizing on this research, it is possible to create hypermedia that scaffolds learners in their quest to build knowledge and understanding. The present article draws from empirical findings to suggest hypermedia design strategies aimed at scaffolding learners engaged in HAL. These guidelines target learners’ knowledge and metacognitive ability to structure hypermedia that maximizes learning potential.
Keywords Hypermedia - Learner centered - Design - Scaffolding
Abstract
This is a report of a developmental research study that aimed to construct and validate an instructional design (ID) model that incorporates the theory and practice of multiple intelligences (MI). The study consisted of three phases. In phase one, the theoretical foundations of multiple Intelligences and ID were examined to guide the development of such model. In phase two the model components were determined and an initial model was constructed. In phase three, the model was reviewed and validated by experts in the field of ID through a three-round Delphi study. The result was a revised and validated Multiple Intelligences Design Model. This paper presents the decision-making processes and procedures used in model development, and provides a framework for the internal validation of ID models using expert review procedures.
Keywords Design and development research - Model construction and validation - Instructional design
Abstract The present study investigated the impact of class lecture webcasts on students’ attendance and learning. The research design employed four data collection methods in two class sections—one with webcast access and another without—of the same course taught by the same instructors. Results indicated the following four major findings. (1) The availability of webcasts negatively impacted student attendance but the availability of other online resources such as PowerPoint slides had a greater negative impact on attendance. (2) Webcast access appeared to nullify the negative effects absenteeism had on student performance. (3) For most performance measures based on lecture content, more webcast viewing was associated with higher performance. (4) Most students in the webcast section reported positive learning experiences and benefits from using webcasts, even though a majority also reported using webcasts for missing a class. In summary, these results collectively suggest that webcasts could have positive effects on students’ learning experiences and performance, even if class attendance does decline.
Keywords Webcasting - Podcasting - Attendance - Student learning - Student performance
Abstract
Recent research has touted the benefits of learner-centered instruction, problem-based learning, and a focus on complex learning. Instructors often struggle to put these goals into practice as well as to measure the effectiveness of these new teaching strategies in terms of mastery of course objectives. Enter the course evaluation, often a standardized tool that yields little practical information for an instructor, but is nonetheless utilized in making high-level career decisions, such as tenure and monetary awards to faculty. The present researchers have developed a new instrument to measure teaching and learning quality (TALQ). In the current study of 464 students in 12 courses, if students agreed that their instructors used First Principles of Instruction and also agreed that they experienced academic learning time (ALT), then students were about 5 times more likely to achieve high levels of mastery of course objectives and 26 times less likely to achieve low levels of mastery, according to independent instructor assessments. TALQ can measure improvements in use of First Principles in teaching and course design. The feedback from this instrument can assist teachers who wish to implement the recommendation made by Kuh et al. (2007) that universities and colleges should focus their assessment efforts on factors that influence student success.
Keywords Course evaluation - Teaching quality - First principles of instruction - Academic learning time - Complex learning - Higher education - Authentic problems
Abstract
This study investigated whether an identifiable link existed between gains in technology literacy and achievement in the areas of reading, mathematics, and language arts. Normal curve equivalent (NCE) content score changes from TerraNova assessments were calculated for approximately 5,000 students from fourth- to fifth-grade and 5,000 students from seventh- to eighth-grade. These changes were compared to relative gains from a pre- to post-assessment in technology literacy. The rationale that a correlation might be expected is grounded in two ideas: (1) technology literacy gains lead to heightened subject specific confidence, and (2) technology literacy gains reflect improved ability to use technology as a mediator of new learning. If correct, both of these conjectures would predict increased academic achievement among students experiencing gains in technology literacy. Results provided evidence of such connections between technology literacy gains and language arts skills.
Keywords Technology literacy - Achievement - Student achievement - Language arts
Abstract
Global comparisons of learning from hypertext/hypermedia and traditional presentation formats like text have yet failed to show major advantages concerning the effectiveness of hypermedia learning. Thus, it is proposed in the current paper to evaluate hypermedia environments more specifically with regard to their potential to implement and support well-defined learning approaches. According to this view, an effective hypermedia design needs to be based on thorough cognitive task analyses with regard to structures, processes, and resources that are required to benefit from a specific learning approach. This claim is illustrated by two experiments in which we explored the instructional potential of hypermedia environments for improving schema acquisition from worked-out examples. A cognitive task analysis was used to identify specific types of information comparisons that are crucial for successful schema induction and that might be effectively supported by suitably designed hypermedia environments. The experiments investigated two methods for enhancing comparison processes in hypermedia-assisted learning from worked-out examples, namely, elaboration prompts and an interactive comparison tool. Both methods improved performance for near-transfer problems. Ways of extending this task-analytical approach to facilitating far transfer are also discussed.
Keywords Instructional design - Hypermedia learning - Worked examples - Schema acquisition - Task analysis - Comparison processes - Example elaboration - Processing prompts
Abstract Expertise in domains ranging from sports to surgery involves a process of recognition-primed decision-making (RPD) in which experts make rapid, intuitive decisions based on recognizing critical features of dynamic performance situations. While the development of expert RPD is assumed to require years of domain experience, the transition from competence to expertise may potentially be hastened by training that specifically targets the recognition aspect of RPD. This article describes a recognition training approach that is based on expertise theories, research findings, and laboratory measurement techniques. This approach repurposes laboratory research tasks as deliberate practice training tasks. Although pioneered in sports expertise research, this approach is appropriate for pre-service and in-service professionals in a wide range of domains that involve rapid, recognition-primed decision-making.
Keywords Advanced learning - Expertise - Instructional design - Performance - Recognition-primed decision-making - Training
Abstract
Although research studies in education show that use of technology can help student learning, its use is generally affected by certain barriers. In this paper, we first identify the general barriers typically faced by K-12 schools, both in the United States as well as other countries, when integrating technology into the curriculum for instructional purposes, namely: (a) resources, (b) institution, (c) subject culture, (d) attitudes and beliefs, (e) knowledge and skills, and (f) assessment. We then describe the strategies to overcome such barriers: (a) having a shared vision and technology integration plan, (b) overcoming the scarcity of resources, (c) changing attitudes and beliefs, (d) conducting professional development, and (e) reconsidering assessments. Finally, we identify several current knowledge gaps pertaining to the barriers and strategies of technology integration, and offer pertinent recommendations for future research.
Keywords Technology integration - Barriers - Strategies - K-12 - Curriculum - Future research
Abstract
This paper presents a new technique of delivery of classes—an instructional technique which will no doubt revolutionize the teaching and learning, whether for on-campus, blended or online modules. This is based on the simple task of instructionally incorporating text-to-speech software embedded in the lecture slides that will simulate exactly the delivery of an intended lecture, assisted with teaching aids such videos, animations and music, as deemed necessary. The benefits of such an approach in the educational system of the University are multifold and can be categorized in three different axes namely pedagogical, administrative and financial. Our main interests in this article lie along the pedagogical benefits (which undoubtedly overlap to some extent into administrative and financial axis) that this technique will bring in the system. While it is obvious that the initial process does consume a reasonable amount of time and gradually reveals its own complexities, constraints and limitations as described in this paper, the approach does however provide considerable elements to bring a major re-definition of the overall teaching and learning framework at the University of Mauritius.
Keywords Online learning - Educational technology - Text-to-speech integration - Instructional design - Multimedia in education
Abstract Two studies analyzed impacts of writing and receiving web-mediated peer reviews on revision of research reports by undergraduate science students. After conducting toxicology experiments, 77 students posted draft reports and exchanged double-blind reviews. The first study randomly assigned students to four groups representing full, partial, or no peer review. Students engaging in any aspect of peer review made more revisions than students confined to reviewing their own reports. In the second study, all students engaged in peer review, and the influence of writing versus receiving critiques was analyzed using linear regression. Both studies showed receiving reviews to be more significant than writing them in terms of triggering report revisions. Students valued the peer review experience and credited it with giving them insights about their work. Conclusions address implications for optimal design of online peer review systems and for further research into student learning gains.
Keywords Computer-supported collaborative learning - Interactive learning - Peer assessment - Peer review - Student-active learning
Abstract This qualitative case study was an examination of a team-based faculty/mentor-led International Doctoral Student Support Group (IDSSG) designed specifically around issues in preparing and mentoring international doctoral students for careers in academia. Twelve participants were selected to participate in a support/focus group that met twice a month for an academic year to attend workshops and discuss their lives as doctoral students. The data set was comprised of two pre- and post-surveys and two in-depth pre- and post-interviews. Findings in the themes of international doctoral students’ graduate school experiences and the impact of the faculty-led support group are presented and discussed.
Keywords International student - Doctoral student - Mentoring - Case study - Focus group
Abstract
Case-based learning has long been used to bring students into contact with the complexity of real-world situations. Despite this popularity and considerable history, research into how case analysis can support future problem-solving has been limited. The study reported in this paper investigated learners’ understanding of multimedia instructional design and development derived from the analysis of two richly detailed cases, and how this understanding then supported learners in their own design projects. A qualitative case study approach was used to follow a class of Masters students engaged in a technology-supported, case-based learning environment. Student work from case analysis, group project and reflective tasks was the key data source, complemented by interviews with students and their instructor, observations of class meetings, and the collection of online discussion list records and electronic resource files. The study found that the case analysis task raised learners’ awareness of design approaches and project management strategies, and that discussion and reflection play critical roles in developing students’ understanding. The study also highlighted some limitations of the case approach, suggesting the need for strategies that support learners’ thinking and reasoning.
Keywords Case-based learning - Instructional design - Design projects - Problem solving
Abstract
Schools and districts should use a well-designed needs assessment to inform important decisions about a range of technology program areas. Presently, there is a lack of valid and reliable instruments available and accessible to schools to effectively assess their educational needs to better design and evaluate their projects and initiatives. The School Technology Needs Assessment (STNA) is a free, user-friendly online survey tool that meets this need for planning and formative evaluation of technology projects in educational settings. This study used existing data from a robust sample (n = 1918) of educators from across North Carolina to examine the reliability and validity of STNA. A collective review of study results including the literature review, exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and internal consistently reliability analysis indicated that STNA was a high-quality instrument.
Keywords Technology survey - Staff needs assessment - Factor analysis
Abstract The purpose of this study was to identify and validate items applicable to evaluating online courses at the postsecondary level. Items were derived from a review of the literature. Four judges rated the similarity of the items by making pair-wise comparisons utilizing multidimensional scaling (MDS). The study consisted of five stages. Stage I involved identifying items. Stage II involved validating items. Stage III involved sampling. Stage IV involved developing an online MDS instrument accommodating the 4,851 ([99 * 98]/2) pair-wise comparisons and rating them. Stage V involved data collection and analysis. The results of the MDS study indicated a three-dimensional solution (Accessibility, Adaptability, and Clarity of Communication) as the appropriate model for analysis. The three-dimensional solution indicated .24222 for the fit values of STRESS and .74 for R-squared. Four clusters were identified as Contextual Accommodation, Instructional Access, Guided Learning, and Organizational Clarity.
Keywords Multidimensional scaling - Validation - Proximity - Postsecondary level education - Online course - Evaluation instrument
Cummins, Brown, and Sayers (2006), the authors of Literacy, Technology, and Diversity: Teaching for Success in Changing Times, have written an excellent critique of the research conducted by the National Reading Panel (NRP) that forms the foundation for the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) in terms of literacy development. The authors contrast the findings of the NRP study with a comprehensive literature review of longitudinal research data from both domestic and international reading studies. Using the findings from this comprehensive literature review related to reading development, the authors illustrate issues resulting from the implementation of the NCLB, especially in terms of schools serving low income and minority students. Cummins, Brown, and Sayers conclude the book with recommendations for pedagogical approaches, assessment techniques, and technology-supported instructional strategies that better align with current theory related to how people learn and that support the needs of the diverse student populations teachers are now engaged with in the U.S.
The comprehensive, longitudinal research data summarized by the authors demonstrates that U.S. students perform well in early elementary grades in terms of conversational fluency and decoding skills, but their performance drops off in higher grades where stronger reading comprehension skills of academic, complex prose is needed (p. 13, 52). Yet, the NCLB is focused “on implementing ‘scientifically proven’ approaches to initial reading instruction (thereby providing a solution to a nonexistent problem), while largely ignoring the real problems that many adolescents face in more advanced forms of reading comprehension” (p. 13). The authors also argue that the larger issue being ignored by current reform efforts is the impact of poverty on student achievement. Additionally, through the NCLB, drill and practice type pedagogies are being emphasized in schools that primarily serve low-income students. This type of pedagogy is at odds with current theory on how people learn, especially in terms of supporting the needs of diverse students.
Two different emerging trends in the educational research literature have attempted to provide theories and models for changing how we relate to, and instruct, students of the 21st century. The first trend is towards more community-based learning. Ever since Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger’s classic book (1991) on how workers learn by gradually adopting the practices of a community, there has been an explosion of research related to the concept of communities of practice, or communities of learning. Wenger himself has fueled these flames in his subsequent books (1998, 2002), arguing that people develop trajectories revolving around communities of practice, with this development centered on their construction of situated knowledge, development of identity, and adoption of practices. However, questions remain related to what it means to say you have a community of practice (Cox, 2005), what the word “community” might even represent (Hillery, 1955), and what instructors can do to leverage the affordances of learning within a community in today’s schools.
Alongside this trend, there has been another pattern of discussion about the characteristics of today’s learners. In this trend, researchers argue that there is a new age of learning to replace the previous “Industrial Age.” This new episode in history, the Information Age, is characterized by an overwhelming access to information, allowing students to become knowledgeable in a particular subject through a few mouse clicks. This transformation of what the students have access to and can learn requires an accompanying pedagogical shift for teachers, who are no longer the experts releasing information to the students, but rather facilitators as students develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Accompanying this increased access to information is an unparalleled ability to connect people and resources together through modern technologies, creating a more linked, and networked, learning environment.
Abstract This study examined the effects of prior knowledge, learner preference for control, and type of control (learner or program) on the achievement of middle-school students in a computer-based instructional program on adding and subtracting integers. Students were blocked by preference-for-control scores and randomly assigned to either a learner-control or program-control version of instruction. A significant three-way interaction (prior knowledge × preference scores × type of control) revealed that students with high prior knowledge achieved better on the posttest when their preference for control was matched with the type of control they received, whereas students with low prior knowledge achieved better when their preference was mismatched. A significant three-way interaction on attitude reflected the same pattern found in the interaction for achievement scores. The overall results indicate that matching learner preference to the type of program they receive is an effective strategy for high-prior-knowledge students but not for those with low prior knowledge.
Keywords Learner control - Learner preferences - Prior knowledge - Computer-based instruction - Mathematics
Abstract
This case study investigated learners’ perceptions of value from participating in a learning activity designed to model professional instructional design practice. Learners developed instructional design products for a corporate client in the context of a classroom-based course. The findings indicate that learners perceived different kinds of value which varied according to the degree of integration of learners’ goals with client’s goals, ranging from (a) co-constituted value (in which learners perceived the value of their participation as being inextricably bound to creation of value to the client) to (b) satisficing value (in which learners engaged with the activity so as to generate value for themselves while providing sufficient or good enough value to the client) to (c) salvage value (in which learners did not participate in the activity in the manner intended, but attempted to salvage some personal value from their participation). A framework relates these learners’ perceptions of value to three main features of such learning activities: what you do, how you do it, and who you are accountable to. The relative worth of these different kinds of value is discussed, and proposals for influencing learner perceptions of value are presented.
Keywords Instructional design - Perceived value - Professional practice - Situated learning activity
Abstract
New literacies researchers have identified a core set of strategies for locating information, one of which is “reading a Web page to locate information that might be present there” (Leu et al. in: Rush, Eakle, Berger (eds) Secondary school reading and writing: What research reveals for classroom practices, 2007, p. 46). Do middle-school, high school, and undergraduate students (N = 51) differ in effectiveness at locating information within extended hypermedia? Students completed a pretest measure of knowledge about the circulatory system. They then gave verbal answers to 10 researcher-developed questions about the circulatory system, which they answered by searching the environment and thinking aloud about the task. Consistent with large-scale national and international studies, students were only moderately successful at locating information. Successfully locating information was significantly associated with having more prior knowledge, efficient searching, and giving better quality answers to the researcher-posed questions. It was also associated with specific strategies only at the level of individual questions. That is, the “ideal” strategy depended on the question and how the answer was phrased in the text. Implications of the results for teaching students how to search in hypermedia are offered.
Keywords Search - Hypermedia - Science - Knowledge
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Abstract In this paper, we explore how the application of multimedia design principles may inform the development of educational multi-user virtual environments (MUVEs). We look at design principles that have been shown to help learners manage cognitive load within multimedia environments and conduct a conjectural analysis of the extent to which such principles can help manage cognitive load in the highly immersive “beyond multimedia” environments that 3-D educational MUVEs represent. We frame our discussion as a design practice analysis of the River City MUVE, a science inquiry environment that has middle school students collaborating to develop and test hypotheses regarding illnesses sweeping a virtual town. We analyze the current River City interface design using a framework describing cognitive overload scenarios and associated approaches to manage cognitive load. We also discuss the potential difficulties that may be seen as multimedia principles are applied to 3-D MUVEs. Our discussion describes a blueprint for research implementations that we are undertaking to systematically investigate the effect of an educational MUVE interface design based on multimedia principles—implementations that we hope will provide an action framework for other MUVE researchers to use in their own studies.
Keywords Cognitive processing - Multimedia design principles - MUVEs
Abstract This paper examines the use of mixed methods for analyzing users’ avatar-related activities in a virtual world. Server logs recorded keystroke-level activity for 595 participants over a six-month period in Whyville.net, an informal science website. Participants also completed surveys and participated in interviews regarding their experiences. Additionally, the study included online ethnographic observations of Whyville and offline observations of a subset of 88 users in classroom and after-school settings during their participation. A mixed-methods analysis identified a major user emphasis on avatar appearance and customization that was invariant across user typologies. Implications for the use of mixed methods in online environments are discussed with regard to three challenges resolved during the study: (1) appropriate reduction of the vast quantity of data, (2) integrated analysis of online and offline events, and (3) interactions between qualitative and quantitative data.
Abstract The following empirical study examines the acquisition of expertise. The model structures in the domain of empirical methodologies were examined in a time period of two semesters. At each measurement point (N = 5), the model structures of the reference groups were compared with those of the group of learners. The group of learners consisted of (N = 31) students who did not have any experience with research methods and their theoretical foundations. The results indicate that the external criteria enabled a precise assessment of learning dependent model change.
Keywords Acquisition of expertise - Learning dependent change - Learning and instruction - Mental models - Knowledge assessment
Abstract
A mixed methods design was used to identify factors associated with motivational engagement in video gaming. Self-report instruments were administered to 189 video game players to assess goal orientations, affect, need for cognition, and perceptions of engagement and flow. Simultaneously, a sub-set of 25 participants were interviewed and results analyzed to identify patterns that influenced their propensity for gaming. Regression results revealed motivational engagement for gaming was related to gender, hours of play, task orientation, and socialization. Players indicated that gaming was socially captivating, fun, challenging but relaxing, and precipitated positive affect and cognition even when unsuccessful results were achieved. The negative consequences normally associated with task failure were not reported by participants to take place during gaming. We concluded transfer of motivational engagement in gaming for entertainment to educational contexts was unlikely to occur.
Keywords Motivation - Video gaming - Engagement
Introduction
There has been and continues to be an accelerating proliferation of online classes, courses and training in K-12, higher education, and other organizations. If the field of Instructional Technology is to work towards improving the quality of these educational experiences, it is critical that future educators and instructional designers gain theory-based expertise. Online Learning: Concepts, Strategies, and Application was written to guide design and development efforts. As a new faculty member at my university this past year, I was tasked with developing and teaching a graduate-level course on the creation of online courses. I chose Online Learning: Concepts, Strategies, and Application as the primary text for this course. This review shares my experiences using the textbook over two semesters, along with the experiences of my students.
Abstract The development of instructional software is a complex process, posing high demands to the technical and didactical expertise of developers. Domain specialists rather than professional developers are often responsible for it, but authoring tools with pre-structured templates claim to compensate for this limited experience. This study compares instructional software products made by developers with low production experience (n = 6) and high production experience (n = 8), working with a template-based authoring tool. It is hypothesized that those with high production experience will be more productive and create software with a higher didactical quality than those with low production experience, whereas no differences with regard to technical and authoring quality are expected. The results show that the didactical quality was unsatisfactory and did not differ between groups. Nevertheless the templates compensated for differences in experience because the technical and authoring quality was equal for both groups, indicating that templates enable domain specialists to participate successfully in the production process.
Keywords Instructional software templates - Instructional design - Authoring
Abstract With the advancement of Internet communication technologies, distributed work groups have great potential for remote collaboration and use of collective knowledge. Adopting the Complex Adaptive System (CAS) perspective (McGrath, Arrow, & Berdhal, Personal Soc Psychol Rev 4 (2000) 95), which views virtual learning teams as an adaptive and self-organizing entity, this study examined group development processes of seven intact virtual learning teams over 12 weeks using the multiple case study design. Content analysis revealed seven temporal group development phases: orientation, scheduling, exploration, work and decision, progress check and evaluation, refinement and formatting, and termination. The development pattern of each virtual learning team could be described as either Linear Progression, a straight movement through those phases, or Adaptive Progression, a backward movement to a previous phase for adaptation before proceeding. We also identify the factors that caused each team to develop in one way or the other and conclude with the implications of conceptualizing virtual teams as a CAS.
Keywords Virtual learning teams - Group development - Online education - Online collaboration
Abstract
A critical step in problem-based learning (PBL) units occurs when groups present their solution to the central problem. This is challenging for middle school students because it involves the creation of an evidence-based argument (Krajcik et al., Journal of the Learning Sciences 7:313–350, 1998). Using a mixed method design, this study investigated (a) the impact of computer-based argumentation scaffolds on middle school students’ argumentation ability, and (b) what middle school students used for support and why during a PBL unit. Data sources included persuasive presentation rating scores, argument evaluation ability test, videotaped class sessions, and prompted interviews. Results included a significant impact on average-achieving students’ argument evaluation ability, and use of the scaffolds by the small groups to plan their research and keep organized.
Keywords Evidence-based arguments - Middle school - Science education - Computer-based scaffolds - Problem-based learning
Abstract The competency requirements, content, culture, and value systems of business and industry career environments can differ significantly from that of the higher education context where instructional design and technology (IDT) students receive their formal training. Therefore, faculty should consider how they might provide flexibility in their programs to allow IDT students to experience the contexts in which they choose to work following graduation. The article reports on the results of a case study of an exemplary IDT program identified through a national survey. The emphases and preparation practices of faculty in the case study program were noted to provide an example of how one program successfully prepares its graduates for a variety of career environments, and specifically for a business and industry environment. By studying the successes and challenges of specific programs, new or existing programs may gain ideas for building or re-working existing programs to better meet the needs of students desiring contextualized preparation for different career environments.
Keywords Instructional design and technology preparation - Instructional design competencies - Preparing instructional designers - Instructional design - Instructional technology
Abstract The roles of task, learner, and mentor in a successful project-based instructional technology (IT) internship program were studied in light of contemporary motivation theories. Interns in four different locations were asked to apply their academic experiences in constructing real projects at work under the supervision of their site mentors and academic advisor. Data included tape-recorded intern interviews, status-review notes, e-portfolios, mentor interviews, and mentor evaluations. Data were collected over 6 semesters, from 18 different cases, 4 of which are highlighted here. The study considered the roles of task, learner, and mentors as they are needed to make the most of project-based internship programs. Implications for the design and development of internship and capstone programs, and specifically successful student performance in internship programs, are considered.
Keywords Contemporary motivation theories - IT capstone internships - Open-ended learning environments - Project-based learning - Situated learning environments
Abstract This study was designed to investigate the impact of question prompts that guide students to focus on context-related issues when learning through cases in an ill-structured domain. Three groups of undergraduate students studied cases during a lab-session time period using a web-based environment. The first group studied without any question prompts. The second group studied the same material while prompted to provide written answers to embedded questions in the cases. The third group studied while having only to think of possible answers for the question prompts. In this study, we explored how the questioning intervention affected students’ conceptual knowledge of the domain and their problem-solving ability. Post-tests did not reveal significant statistical differences in the groups’ performance, indicating that under specific study conditions the prompting impact is not traceable in the learning outcomes. This result, however, is discussed in the light of a previous study, which showed that this context-oriented prompting method had a beneficial effect on student learning in a prolonged study-time setting, where students were able to self-regulate their study activity.
Keywords Question prompts - Case-based learning - Learning in ill-structured domains - Learning in context - Technology-enhanced learning
Abstract
During student-centered learning, the individual assumes responsibility for determining learning goals, monitoring progress toward meeting goals, adjusting or adapting approaches as warranted, and determining when individual goals have been adequately addressed. This can be particularly challenging while learning from the World-Wide Web, where billions of resources address a variety of needs. The individual must identify which tools and resources are available and appropriate, how to assemble them, and how to manage and support their unique learning goals. We analyze the applicability of cognitive principles to learning from Web-based multimedia, review and critically analyze issues related to cognition and student-centered learning from Web-based multimedia, and describe implications for design research and practice.
Keywords Student-centered learning - Web-based learning - Cognitive complexity
Abstract
Current teaching and learning methods reveal marked differences between how students approach learning and how instructors approach teaching. Little attention has been paid to understanding these differences and their implications for designing successful learning environments. The purpose of the paper is to introduce a framework for understanding and reconciling perspectives on teaching and learning success. First, we examine perspectives on learning success. Next, we compare and contrast beliefs and practices associated with teaching and learning. Finally, we introduce a model for reconciling teaching and learning beliefs and practices, and discuss implications for future research and practice.
Keywords Learning success - Teaching success - Reconciliation
Abstract
The American Psychological Association’s Learner-Centered Principles provide empirically-based approaches to improving teaching and learning. However, in order to facilitate learner-centered, technology-rich instruction to K-12 students, teachers must be afforded opportunities to develop key understandings and skills, rarely evident in most professional development programs. In this paper, we synthesize empirically-based studies and recommendations for teacher learning and propose a learner-centered professional development (LCPD) framework to guide both professional development and empirical work on teacher learning. We describe LCPD components, discuss ways that technology can support LCPD, and highlight implications for research and practice.
Keywords Teacher professional development - Technology - Learner-centered instruction
Abstract The demand for good instructional environments presupposes valid and reliable analytical instruments for educational research. This paper introduces the SMD Technology (Surface, Matching, Deep Structure), which measures relational, structural, and semantic levels of graphical representations and concept maps. The reliability and validity of the computer-based and automated SMD Technology was tested in three experimental studies with 106 participants. The findings indicate a high reliability and validity. The discussion focuses on the development and realization of the three levels of the SMD Technology and applications for research, learning and instruction.
Keywords SMD technology - Assessment - Mental models - Concept maps - Knowledge representation
Overview
Explaining and defining what instructional design and instructional technology are to graduate students new to the field of instructional technology is a challenging task for higher education faculty. By human nature, instructional technology faculty and new graduate students to the field can expect researchers, authors, and educators to be unsatisfied with published interpretations of the two terms that impact how our field is defined. Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology is an appealing read simply because the authors place the field of instructional technology in perspective that any graduate student in any professional field can understand. As with many texts that describe and define our field, I found myself reading through the sections thinking “finally...a book that puts the field of instructional technology and design in a clear perspective.”
Given the various interpretations of our field of instructional technology, why should this publication, in particular, be of interest to the broad education and training community? Consider this situation the authors of this publication describe: “Many of us...have had the experience of trying to explain our profession to our parents. Long explanations, short explanations-the end result is always the same. Our parents go cross-eyed and mumble something like, ‘That’s nice, dear’” (Reiser & Dempsey, 2006). The authors of this publication propose a definition of the term instructional deign and technology to define our field and provide a broad perspective of instructional design. Other publications that attempt to define instructional technology and instructional design tend to focus on describing interpretations in terms of systematic processes and end-products. This may be one explanation for some confusion among those new to the field when asking the million dollar question: “what is the difference between instructional technology and instructional design.” Although many readers may have developed their own interpretations of what our field is about, perhaps the clarity and “broad and global” view of the instructional technology field presented in this publication is a reason for purchase. This review will describe some of the publication’s strengths and weaknesses in terms of breadth and depth, organization, and the reviewer’s general recommendation.
Abstract
Based on strong research literatures, we conjectured that social processing of feedback by cooperating in a small group setting—with social incentives to ask questions, give explanations and discuss disagreements—would increase learning. We compared group and individual feedback, using two technologies: (1) Technology-mediated, Peer-Assisted Learning (TechPALS), which uses wireless handheld technology to structure feedback in small groups as they solve fractions problems and (2) a popular desktop product, which provides feedback to individual students as they solve fractions problems individually. Three elementary schools participated in a randomized controlled experiment conducted in the 2007–2008 school year. Students in the TechPALS condition learned more than did the control group students, with effect sizes ranging from d = 0.14 to d = 0.44. Analysis of observational data confirmed that students in the TechPALS condition participated socially in questioning, explaining, and discussing disagreements, whereas students in the individual condition did not. We conclude that an integration of technology, cooperative activity designs and broader educational practices can lead to impact on students’ mathematics learning.
Keywords Handheld computers - Wireless networking - Mathematics - Fractions - Cooperative learning - Group feedback - Feedback
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of domain-general and domain-specific scaffolds with different levels of support, continuous and faded, on learning of scientific content and problem-solving. Students’ scores on a multiple-choice pretest, posttest, and four recommendation forms were analyzed. Students’ content knowledge in all conditions significantly increased from pretest to posttest. However, the continuous domain-specific condition outperformed the other conditions on the posttest. Although domain-general scaffolds were not as effective as domain-specific scaffolds on learning content and problem representation, they helped students develop solutions, make justifications, and monitor learning. Unlike domain-specific scaffolds, domain-general scaffolds helped students transfer problem-solving skills when they were faded. Several suggestions are discussed for making improvements in the design of scaffolds to facilitate ill-structured problem solving.
Keywords Prompt scaffolds - Ill-structured problem solving - Hypermedia - Science
Abstract
This study investigated self-presentation bias in the self-reports of teachers about their practices in six topic areas in educational technology (Instructional Design, Assessment, Learner-Centered Instruction, Curriculum Alignment, Attitudes about Computers, and Use of Computers with Students). Subjects were 50 middle-school teachers. Data were collected using a 30-item Likert-type survey containing five items per topic area. Teachers responded to items in two forms: “what I do” and “what other teachers do.” Significant differences favoring the “I” form were obtained in three of the six areas (Instructional Design, Learner-Centered Instruction, and Curriculum Alignment) and on nine of the 30 items, indicating a rather strong self-presentation bias. Responses were generally positive across both forms. Results are discussed with implications for working with teachers and for using additional assessment measures that complement teacher self-reports.
Keywords Self-presentation bias - Self-report bias - Technology integration - Teacher use of educational technology
Instruction takes on many forms. Whether it is identified as being constructivist, non-constructivist, direct, indirect, active, passive, guided, or unguided, scholars have historically had a difficult time agreeing on which methods are the most beneficial for learners. In the book, Constructivist Instruction, 24 of the leading scholars in learning sciences, educational psychology and instructional technology go head-to-head in the debate on constructivist instruction. Whereas some readers may expect a clear winner to emerge as a result of almost 400 pages of debate, the goal of the book is really about identifying various definitions of key terminology, honing in on areas of similarities and differences, and establishing a tentative research agenda that might allow researchers of differing opinions to work together in the future.
According to the editors, this book was “stimulated by a debate held at the 2007 annual convention of the American Educational Research Association (AERA)” (p. xii). The live debate was not widely attended by well-known scholars; however, almost all of them agreed to write a chapter articulating their viewpoints on constructivist instruction. The bulk of the book is organized into two sections; one section contains five chapters detailing the evidence for constructivism and the other section consists of five chapters about the challenges to the constructivist view. After gaining a variety of perspectives by proponents and opponents, the latter part of the book examines specific learning and motivational issues associated with constructivism. To make this feel more like an extension of the debate that started at the 2007 AERA convention, each chapter concludes with a brief question and answer dialogue between the author(s) and their opponents.
As the book progresses, several differences between proponents and opponents for constructivist instruction emerge. First, there are differences with how constructivists and non-constructivists view constructivism as either a paradigm or as a pedagogical strategy. For example, Kirchner’s chapter posits that research demonstrates that constructivism only works as an epistemological perspective and that it is not effective as a method of instruction, whereas the chapter written by Schwartz, Lindgren and Lewis claim that constructivism is valid as both a theory of knowledge and as a pedagogical label. Second, an assumption of the constructivist approach is that direct instruction is not able to handle ill-structured cognitive domains. Spiro and DeSchryver posit in their chapter that direct instruction of ill-structured domains results in over-simplified understandings; however, in Clark’s chapter, he argues that cognitive task analyses on experts in a domain allow learners to reason like domain experts and work through complex tasks sequentially. Other issues dealing with motivation, prior knowledge, and guidance also emerge as key aspects of the debate, illuminating the complexity of this topic.
With all of these differing opinions, how do we gain agreement and move forward? Many of the authors discuss the importance of designing and executing classically controlled experiments that test aspects of constructivist instruction (Mayer, Sweller, Rosenshine); however, the constructivists state their concern with this methodology. According to Schwartz et al., it waters down “one or both models of instruction, because people try to make their instruction similar, except for one thing” (p. 53). Wise and O’Neill also agree with this viewpoint, calling it a “methodological catch-22” (p. 87). If only one aspect of the framework is changed, the system is impoverished; if the best versions of both frameworks are analyzed, the results are not generalizable. Clearly, creating a research agenda that both constructivists and non-constructivists find valid is a struggle that extends past the binding of this book.
One of the major strengths of this book, the organizational structure, can also be viewed as one of its major weaknesses. On the one hand, allowing for a question and answer discussion at the conclusion of each chapter is an intensely valuable way to gain insight into the thought processes of key scholars in the field. Their questions allow the reader to establish aspects of the arguments that may be incomplete or poorly defined. Especially for readers new to the debate on constructivism, the discussions become a way to check understanding and read the chapters with a critical eye. The discussions also serve as models for how to construct, and respond to, criticisms in a scholarly manner. On the other hand, the organizational structure seems to dampen the amount of progress each individual discussion can make to the overall debate. For example, in several pro-constructivism chapters, the authors clarified that they supported guidance in instruction. This position differed from the radical view of constructivism, and allowed for some shared ground between the two “camps”. Although non-constructivists had the opportunity to read and comment on these positions, the non-constructivists frequently criticized constructivism in their own chapters for having little to no guidance. It was almost as if the previous discussions had never existed. This resulted in redundant discussions throughout the book on similar topics, such as guided instruction, types of knowledge domains, levels of expertise, and types of feedback.
Is it possible that a different organization of the book would eliminate the issue of redundant arguments? It is difficult to ascertain. Since the authors were asked to write a chapter stating their opinions on constructivist instruction, it follows that they would write a stand-alone account from their own perspective. If the authors had been asked to co-author a chapter on a specific topic, perhaps the results would have been more collaborative instead of individualistic and redundant. The question-and-answer portion at the end of the chapter would then be more focused on the clarifying aspects of the topic and reaching common ground instead of reiterating a particular “camp’s” viewpoints. As a result, although the structure of the book was a novel way to extend a debate into an accessible written form, ultimately it limited the amount of productive and collaborative conversation about a future path that both constructivists and non-constructivists can share.
The editors of this book did a commendable job portraying this often heated debate in a fair and balanced manner. Not only were there the same number of chapters for each “camp”, each author was responsible for responding to comments in the question and answer portion at the conclusion of each chapter. The conclusion of the book contains chapters written by the editors, who take a more eclectic approach and attempt to locate emerging themes and future opportunities. Ultimately, the reader is left with an opportunity to make up his or her mind about the topic without feeling as though one side was under-represented.
Overall, anyone interested in learning more about both sides of the debate on constructivist instruction should read this book. Not only does it give a broad description of the many definitions and aspects of constructivism, it also goes into depth on how constructivism applies to areas such as reading comprehension, technology, and math and science education. If the ultimate goal is to reach consensus on some of the issues, and identify areas of future research, this book is a step in the right direction.
Educational Technology Research and Development
Abstract This paper studies the social talk of high school students in online discussion forums. On-task talk has generally been assessed as valuable discussion because it contributes directly to productive learning. Off-task conversation, on the other hand, is often regarded as useless and a waste of time. Should this social talk indeed be regarded as an off-task activity? Is social talk such as greeting, excusing, comforting and sharing personal feelings irrelevant to learning? This study analyzes threads and argues that social talk is interwoven with on-task talk. It is interesting to note that a substantial quantity of off-task messages served the latent function of guiding group discussion toward making progress in solving collaborative problems in a subtle and indirect manner. The power of “soft talk” embedded in off-task social conversation is explored and fully discussed.
Keywords Social talk - Effective discussions - Participation - Soft power - Negotiation
Abstract
This study examines four months of online discourse of 22 Grade 4 students engaged in efforts to advance their understanding of optics. Their work is part of a school-wide knowledge building initiative, the essence of which is giving students collective responsibility for idea improvement. This goal is supported by software—Knowledge Forum—designed to provide a public and collaborative space for continual improvement of ideas. A new analytic tool—inquiry threads—was developed to analyze the discourse used by these students as they worked in this environment. Data analyses focus on four knowledge building principles: idea improvement; real ideas, authentic problems (involving concrete/empirical and abstract/conceptual artifacts); community knowledge (knowledge constructed for the benefit of the community as a whole); and constructive use of authoritative sources. Results indicate that these young students generated theories and explanation-seeking questions, designed experiments to produce real-world empirical data to support their theories, located and introduced expert resources, revised ideas, and responded to problems and ideas that emerged as community knowledge evolved. Advances were reflected in progress in refining ideas and evidence of growth of knowledge for the community as a whole. Design strategies and challenges for collective idea improvement are discussed.
Keywords Knowledge building - Deep understanding - Collective responsibility - Inquiry threads - Conceptual change
Abstract
Sound may hold great promise for instructional software by supporting learning in a variety of ways. Conceptual and preconceptual barriers, however, still appear to prevent software designers from using sound more effectively in their instructional products. Interface books seldom discuss the use of sound and when they do, it is most often simple verbatim narration of on-screen text. This content analysis of 12 award-winning instructional software products indicated that, while sound is being incorporated into many learning environments, many instructional designers are using sound only for literal, information conveyance and not yet exploring how to exploit the associative potential of music, sound effects, and narration to help learners process the material under study more deeply.
Keywords Human audition - Instructional design - Learning environments - Use of sound
Editors’ introduction
A review of submissions to Educational Technology Research and Development in the last 2 years indicated that the topic receiving the most submissions was game-based learning. Not surprisingly, high interest in game-based learning has resulted in a backlog of accepted papers on this topic. The editors decided that it would make sense to readers to have a special thematic issue comprised of some of these papers. This issue contains seven of those papers.
To facilitate your reading, we briefly describe these seven papers here. The first article in this series is by Gunter, Kenny and Vick. In this article Gunter and her colleagues argue that in the mad rush to create educational games many designers have ignored basic instructional principles. Their RETAIN (Relevance Embedding Translation Adaptation Immersion & Naturalization) model is aimed at correcting this deficiency.
The second article by Fengfeng Ke addresses the application of computer games with regard to their cognitive, metacognitive and affective impact on learners and learning performance. The third article by Schrader and McCreery addresses the issue of acquiring sill and developing expertise through massively multiplayer games.
The fourth article by Feldon and Kafai focuses on avatars in virtual worlds; they propose a mixed methods approach to analyzing avatar-related activities in order to make sense of what learners might be thinking and understanding. The article by Seung Yoon also focuses on a key research issue pertaining to the assessment of game-based activities—namely, how teams form and how groups develop in virtual environments.
The article by Nelson and Erlandson focuses on the important design consideration of managing cognitive load in game-based learning environments. The last article in this thematic issue by Kinzie addresses the well-known but not so well-understood issue of gender differences in middle school children with regard to technology and games; her focus is also on the implications for the design of educational games.
Taken together, these seven papers suggest that game-based learning is popular but still in its infancy with regard to design issues and with regard to understanding impact on learning and instruction. We hope that these papers will stimulate additional research on this topic. Perhaps in a few years it might be possible to argue persuasively that game-based learning has come of age with well-analyzed evidence of learning outcomes and well-developed models for design and development.
Abstract This study employed a qualitative research design to investigate instructional designers’ views and uses of conceptual tools in design work (e.g., learning theories and design theories). While past research has examined how instructional designers spend their time, how they generally make decisions, and expert-novice differences, little attention has been paid to the value and perceptions of conceptual tools, from the perspective of practicing designers. Based on intensive interviews of practitioners, our findings included ten themes organized according to three meta-themes: (a) using theory, (b) struggling with theory, and (c) connections between theory and intuition in craftwork. While these results substantiate (to some degree) the claim that practitioners often find theory too abstract or difficult to apply, they also suggest that practitioners use theory in several important ways and tend to view theory with ambivalence rather than indifference or dislike. Other conclusions regarding the role of theory in design are provided and future directions for theorizing and research are discussed.
Keywords Theory - Practice - Applications - Qualitative inquiry
Abstract In the past few years, audience response technology (ART) has been widely adopted on college campuses, and is especially popular among instructors of large lecture classes. Claims regarding ART’s benefits to students have received only limited empirical evaluation, and prior studies exhibit methodological limitations. The current study provides a multi-dimensional evaluation, utilizing a newly-developed measure, the Audience Response Technology Questionnaire (ART-Q). Data were provided at three points during a semester by undergraduate students (n = 854) who used ART in three large lecture university courses. Results indicate moderately positive evaluations of ART on some dimensions (e.g., ease of use, impact on attendance), with less positive evaluations on others (e.g., influence on preparation for class). These evaluations showed some variability across time of semester and course, but were not substantially affected by gender, ethnicity, or year in school. Findings are discussed with respect to the need for future research on instructors’ techniques for using ART and their influence on student perceptions and outcomes.
Keywords Audience response technology - Classroom response system - Clickers - Large lecture classes - University
Abstract This study investigated the effects of teacher, self and peer evaluation on preservice teachers’ performance, knowledge and attitudes. Earlier research by the same authors revealed that students made significant improvements in their lesson plans under all three of these conditions, but the teacher-evaluation improved significantly more than the two student-evaluation groups. Therefore, relevant training and practice in the evaluation process were added in this study. All three groups made significant improvements from draft to final version of their plans, and the differences between the teacher-evaluation group and the two student-evaluation groups were non-significant. The authors attribute the stronger performance of the student-evaluation groups to their training on the evaluation task. Students’ overall attitudes were significantly more positive toward teacher evaluation than toward peer evaluation, but did not differ significantly between these two groups and the self-evaluators. Several suggestions are discussed for further improvements in the training of self and peer evaluators.
Keywords Evaluation - Formative - Peer - Self - Teacher - Training
Abstract We are witnessing a mad rush to pour educational content into games in an ad hoc manner in hopes that player/learners are motivated simply because the content is housed inside a game. A failure to base educational game design on well-established learning and instructional theories increases the risk of the game failing to meet its intended educational goals, and yielding students who are entertained but who have not acquired any academic skills or knowledge. Our review of standalone educational games has shown that they are not always based on sound educational principles and theories. We contend that, if academic learning is to take place, a new design paradigm must be developed. This article discusses the RETAIN design and evaluation model for educational games that was developed to aide in the evaluation of how well academic content is endogenously immersed and embedded within the game’s fantasy and story context, promoters transfer of knowledge, and encourages repetitive usage to that content becomes available for use in an automatic way.
Keywords Design formalism - Educational rubric - Game design - Instructional strategies - Instructional design - Serious games - Serious game design
Abstract The study investigated the effects of three types of evaluation on preservice teachers’ performance, knowledge and attitudes related to writing lesson plans that incorporate technology. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of the three treatment conditions: teacher-evaluation, self-evaluation or peer-evaluation. All groups completed three class periods of instruction on writing lesson plans, then each subject submitted his/her draft lesson plan. The drafts were evaluated by assigned evaluators (teacher, self or peer), who provided scores and written feedback on a 15-item rubric. Students then revised their lesson plans into final form. All three treatment groups improved their lesson plans significantly from draft version to final version, with the teacher-evaluation group showing significantly greater improvement and writing significantly better final lesson plans than each of the other two groups. Teacher-evaluation and self-evaluation groups had significantly higher scores on a knowledge-based posttest than the peer-evaluation group. Several suggestions are discussed for making further improvements in the self-evaluation and peer-evaluation processes.
Keywords Evaluation - Teacher - Self - Peer - Preservice - Lesson plan - Research
Abstract
Teachers’ implementation of a problem-based learning (PBL) program was examined to determine both how they assessed student learning and their reasons for these assessment practices. Ten 6th grade science teachers used Alien Rescue, a computer-based PBL module, with their students for approximately three weeks. Interviews, observations, and teacher-developed artifacts were analyzed qualitatively. The results suggest that assessment-related issues impacted the way that teachers implemented this PBL program, with teachers using grades as extrinsic motivators, deemphasizing PBL’ usual focus on student reflection on their process and solutions, and adding assignments to the PBL program in order to provide greater structure for students’ process and help prepare them for standardized tests. Some of these adaptations conflict with practices typically advocated in the literature on PBL. The implications of these results for the design of PBL programs are discussed, with an emphasis on supporting teachers’ (a) local adaptations of PBL materials and (b) professional development through educative components embedded in PBL programs.
Keywords PBL - Assessment - Fidelity of implementation - Local adaptations
Abstract Troubleshooting skills are integral for the Information Technology professional. In order to address faculty concerns that students were not effectively learning required troubleshooting skills, a standardized troubleshooting methodology (the DECSAR Method) was created and integrated into the standard curriculum of a college information technology program. Components of troubleshooting were measured using a pre-/post-testing approach with the Social Problem Solving Inventory—Revised. Testing indicated improvement in several areas of troubleshooting reinforced by DECSAR. The context in which the troubleshooting methodology was applied was associated with post-test change.
Keywords Information technology - Instructional design - Teaching - Troubleshooting
Abstract
This study examined how 498 elementary and secondary educators use student response systems in their instruction. The teachers all completed an online questionnaire designed to learn about their goals for using response systems, the instructional strategies they employ when using the system, and the perceived effects of response systems. Participants in the study tended to use similar instructional strategies when using the technology as have been reported in higher education. These include posing questions to check for student understanding and diagnose student difficulties, sharing a display of student responses for all to see, asking students to discuss or rethink answers, and using feedback from responses to adjust instruction. A latent class analysis of the data yielded four profiles of teacher use based on frequency of use and breadth of instructional strategies employed. Teachers who used the technology most frequently and who employed broadest array of strategies were more likely to have received professional development in instructional strategies and to perceive the technology as more effective with students.
Keywords Student response systems - Teaching practice - Latent class analysis
Abstract
In this paper we describe the criteria of Technology I, II, and III, which some instructional theorists have proposed to describe the differences between a formulaic and a reflective approach to solving educational problems. In a recent study, we applied these criteria to find evidence of a technological gravity that pulls practitioners away from reflective practices into a more reductive approach. We compared published reports of an innovative instructional theory, problem-based learning, to the goals of the theory as it was originally defined. We found three reasons for technological gravity, as well as three approaches some practitioners have used to avoid this gravity. We recommend that instructional technologists adopt our three approaches, as well as the criteria of Technology III, so they may better develop instruction of a quality consistent with the innovative instructional principles they claim, and that best characterizes the goals they have for their practice.
Keywords Critical thinking - Innovation diffusion - Instructional quality - Reflective practice
Abstract
Many reform initiatives adopt a reductionist, proceduralized approach to cultural change, assuming that deep changes can be realized by introducing new classroom activities, textbooks, and technological tools. This article elaborates a complex system perspective of learning culture: A learning culture as a complex system involves macro-level properties (e.g., epistemological beliefs, social values, power structures) and micro-level features (e.g., technology, classroom activities). Deep changes in macro-level properties cannot be reduced to any component. This complex system perspective is applied to examining technology-supported educational change in East Asia and analyzing how teachers sustain the knowledge building innovation in different contexts. Working with the macro–micro dynamics in a learning culture requires a principle-based approach to learning innovation that specifies macro-level changes using principle-based instead of procedure-based terms and engages teachers’ deep reflection and creative engagement at both the macro- and the micro-level.
Keywords Learning culture - Learning innovation - Technology - Emergentism - Complex system - Principle-based innovation
The world is open: How web technology is revolutionizing education (2009), by Curtis J. Bonk, is an enlightening journey into the world of Web 2.0 resources and the future (and present) of global educational opportunities. The book follows in the footsteps of Thomas L. Friedman’s The world is flat: A brief history of the twenty-first century (2005). Bonk carries Friedman’s thought into the realm of education, with the idea of an open world arising from the widespread and uninhibited accessibility of educational opportunities and resources. For Bonk, the world’s openness means “anyone can now learn anything from anyone at anytime” (p. 13). The journey begins with e-books and ends with networks of personalized learning. The reader is treated to an amazing variety of openers that have helped to make the world of today a different educational environment than it was even 10 or 20 years ago. These openers are tools, resources, conceptual frameworks, and environments that conjoin to create a more open world. Bonk’s 10 major openers include e-learning and blended learning, open source and free software, leveraged resources and open courseware, learning object repositories and portals, open information communities, electronic collaboration, alternate reality, and real-time mobility and portability. Bonk uses anecdotal stories to convince the reader of the power of the 10 openers. This reader needed no convincing.
Bonk’s optimistic tone and sure grasp of the myriad of tools and resources available in the world of e-learning today were too far compelling to resist. On one hand, this book was difficult to read. Pages were so full of resources, I could not help but look up and explore each resource mentioned. The spirit of discovery in the book slowed my progress. On the other hand, the book was an easy read. Every few pages, Bonk described a new resource with the potential to change the educational landscape of tomorrow. This book is full of the excitement that surrounds Web 2.0 and new media technologies. Bonk is careful to avoid being bogged down in the details of each technology, and leaves it in the reader’s hands to experiment with each tool and resource. He only includes scholarly material when necessary to drive home a point, making The world is open a popular and vividly enchanting account of what otherwise might be portrayed as an overly complex and confusing new world.
Abstract
Educational learning environments have changed dramatically in the last 20 years. Advances in technology have enabled the World Wide Web and a sundry of other tools. In response, many researchers have argued that one way to understand learning in a complex world is to examine user interactions within Massively Multiplayer Online Games (MMOGs) [Gee (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave/St. Martin's; Squire (2003). Educational Researcher, 35(8), 19–29; Young, Schrader, & Zheng, 2006]. However, few empirical investigations have explored MMOGs as a context for learning. As a result, a 20-item, Likert-type instrument was administered to 2140 participants who actively play MMOGs. Items were designed to measure players’ gaming experiences as they developed requisite skill sets and learned game content. Specifically, this investigation examined how participants’ age ranges and levels of expertise relate to behaviors, strategies, and skills exhibited with an MMOG environment. Although results are not necessarily conclusive, implications for understanding gaming expertise in contemporary educational environments are discussed.
Keywords Expertise - Massively multiplayer online games - Age - Technology - Education
Abstract
This research assessed the value of case study methodology in the design of an educational computer simulation. Three sources of knowledge were compared to assess the value of case study: practitioner and programmer knowledge, disciplinary knowledge, and knowledge obtained from a case study of teacher practice. A retrospective analysis revealed that the case study was the source of 16 out of 23 design decisions and therefore was the most significant influence on the design of the simulation. The case study was particularly effective in sensitizing the design team to the classroom context, identifying common and uncommon teacher practices, revealing unexpected dimensions of interactions in the classroom, and generating constructive changes to the design of the simulation. Case studies can significantly enrich the design of educational software and are a promising methodological choice for design teams.
Keywords Software design - Computer simulation - Case study
Abstract
This paper offers an emerging interpretive framework for understanding the active role instructional designers play in the transformation of learning systems in higher education. A 3-year study of instructional designers in Canadian universities revealed how, through reflexive critical practice, designers are active, moral, political, and influential in activating change at interpersonal, professional, institutional and societal levels. Through narrative inquiry the voices of designers reflect the scope of agency, community and relational practice in which they regularly engage with faculty in institutions of higher learning.
Keywords Instructional designers - Instructional design practice - Narrative inquiry - Moral agency - Instructional design theory
Abstract
Research suggests students’ use of information and communication technology (ICT) may be more a matter of digital literacy and access rather than a generational trait. We sought to identify ICT preferences of post-secondary students (N = 580) through a Digital Propensity Index (DPI), investigating communication methods, Internet practices and the creation of online content. Age, gender and socioeconomic status were examined as factors which might explain why students use ICT. Results suggest age is a factor in ICT use but that it is not the most important consideration; the gender gap and gaps between socioeconomic groups in terms of ICT use may be closing. The findings raise a variety of implications for institutions training pre-service teachers, curriculum developers designing instructional materials and educational leaders developing ICT policy for schools.
Keywords Digital literacy - Digital natives - Digital propensity - ICT - Age - Gender - Socioeconomic status
Abstract
This study investigated the effectiveness of three different levels of enhancement strategies utilized to facilitate students’ learning from static and animated visualization when taking the time-on-task into consideration. Participants were randomly assigned to six treatment groups, and then took four criterion measures. The time-on-task was measured and used as a covariate in the analysis. The results suggest that animation is more effective than static visuals for improving learning across all levels of learning. Questions plus feedback embedded into the visualized material are most effective in enhancing higher-level but not lower-level learning objectives. Furthermore, time-on-task may be interpreted differently. On the one hand, students should be allowed as much time as needed to learn material when it is enriched, such as in the animated lesson. On the other hand, requiring students in a static-only treatment to review the visuals may produce the same learning effect as the use of animated visuals.
Keywords Instructional animation - Visualization - Questions - Feedback - Web-based learning
Abstract
Collaborating closely with a tenth-grade science teacher, we designed a Web-Based Learning Environment (Web-LE) to improve the students’ motivation to learn science. Factors believed to enhance intrinsic motivation (challenge, control, curiosity, and fantasy) were integrated into the instructional design of the Web-based learning tool. The Web-LE was implemented in the teacher’s tenth-grade classroom as a three-day student-centered learning activity. Data collection methods included individual student interviews, teacher interviews, motivation questionnaires, and observations. This study revealed multiple forms of evidence that the Web-LE and the associated learning activity improved students’ motivation. This study illustrates the benefits of educational researchers working closely with teachers using design-based research methods to successfully solve instructional problems and identify reusable design principles. Design principles for the integration of intrinsic motivation factors into the development of similar Web-LEs are presented as well as directions for future research.
Keywords Web-based learning environments - Motivation - Science education
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of diagrams and time-compressed instruction on learning and learners’ perceptions of cognitive load. The following design factors, visuals (visuals and non-visuals) and time-compressed instruction (0%-normal paced, 25, and 50%) were presented to 216 university students to analyze learning in a multimedia environment. Participants listened to audio instruction of the heart and those in the visuals condition viewed 19 diagrams that corresponded to the verbal instruction. The dependent variables consisted of four achievement tests: drawing, identification, terminology, and comprehension. Review behaviors (back and replay buttons) and learners’ perceptions of cognitive load served as additional dependent variables. The results of this study indicate that listening to normal or moderately compressed (25%) instruction in a multimedia environment supports learning. At these speeds, cognitive load is not increased thus allowing learners to gain a conceptual understanding of the material.
Keywords Time-compressed instruction - Multimedia - Multiple representations - Cognitive load - Podcasts - Diagrams
Abstract
This study was designed to investigate the effects of two instructional approaches (whole-task versus part-task) and two levels of learner prior knowledge (lower versus higher) on learner acquisition and transfer of a complex cognitive skill. Participants were 51 undergraduate pre-service teachers. In the part-task condition, a complex skill (preparing a grade book using Excel) was decomposed into a series of smaller tasks, each of which was demonstrated and practiced separately. In the whole-task condition, which was based on the 4C/ID-model (van Merriënboer 1997), learners were exposed to the entire complex skill from the beginning of the instruction and were required to practice performing a series of whole tasks throughout the unit. Results indicated that the whole-task group performed significantly better than the part-task group on a skill acquisition test and a transfer test. Possible reasons for these findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.
Keywords 4C/ID-model - Complex cognitive skill - Transfer of learning - Whole-task approach - Teacher education
Abstract This experimental study was designed to investigate whether supervision meetings, in which students receive specific advice on how to use a development portfolio to monitor their progress and plan their future learning, helps them to develop self-directed learning skills and improve their learning in the domain. In the first year of a hairdressing program in vocational education, supervision meetings were used to provide students with either specific advice or not. Students in the advice group (n = 21) formulated better learning needs, selected more suitable learning tasks, completed more practical assignments, and acquired more certificates than students in the feedback-only group (n = 22). Interviews also showed that students in the advice group appreciated the supervision meeting more and perceived them as more effective than students in the feedback-only group. Guidelines are provided for the use of development portfolios and the organization of supervision meetings in on-demand vocational education.
Keywords Self-directed learning - Advice - Development portfolio - On-demand education - Secondary vocational education and training
Abstract
To correspond to the Association for Educational Communication Technology (AECT) Code of Professional Ethics and the professional journal TechTrends’ ethics columns, this paper provides empirical data regarding ethical issues associated with the use of instructional technology in design and training situations. In-depth interviews of 20 professional technologists were conducted. The three most prominent ethical concerns reported were copyright, learner privacy, and accessibility. The results of this study also identified three ethical issues that have not been discussed extensively in the literature: diversity, conflicts of interest, and professionalism/confidence. In addition to identifying ethical issues, the findings of the study also contribute to the current literature through identifying coping strategies of ethical issues adopted by professional technologists. Finally, implications to researchers, managers, and practitioners were discussed.
Keywords Ethical issues - Instructional technology - Professional technologists - Design - Training
Steve Ross has served without interruption for 17 years as the Research Editor for Educational Technology Research & Development. As a direct consequence of his sustained and substantial service, the journal has grown in terms of quality and is widely recognized as one of the leading refereed and indexed journals in the field of educational technology. Steve has maintained high standards for the journal and consistently brought on board outstanding scholars to serve on the editorial board and the board of consulting editors. He has mentored several other ETR&D editors in his tenure, including Jim Klein, Gary Morrison, and Mike Spector. Steve regularly promotes AECT and ETR&D in many venues. At the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, for example, Steve has organized panel presentations that have resulted in special issues of ETR&D and brought new and broader interest in the research community to ETR&D and AECT. During Professor Ross’s tenure as the Research Editor he has managed the selection of the Young Scholar award on behalf of AECT. In addition, he has been vital in helping with the Young Researcher award selection and in recruiting reviewers for the Featured Research sessions at the annual AECT convention. In addition to his service as Research Editor of ETR&D, Steve has mentored and supported many young faculty and graduate students as a direct result of his involvement with AECT and its flagship journal.
Steve leaves a legacy of an accomplished editor of the Research section of ETR&D, but more importantly he served as a mentor to almost every scholar who submitted a manuscript to the journal during the past 17 years. Regardless of how the reviewers rated the manuscript, Steve always had helpful suggestions for improving the manuscript whether the decision was reject, resubmit, or accept with minor revisions. His comments were not those of an editor, but rather those of a mentor and researcher who was always teaching and helping both young and experienced authors craft the best articles. During his tenure as editor, we saw continued growth of a well respected journal that ranks among the tops in international journals in educational technology.
The irreverent Journal of Irreproducible Results once characterized the average journal editor as having an IQ of 69, wearing a permanent sneer, and gleefully wielding an oversized and overused “Reject!” stamp. Lucky for us, Steve Ross was not your average editor. Imagine! Steve served as Research Editor of ETR&D for well over a quarter of his lifetime to date. He guided the journal throughout this period with wisdom, integrity, diligence, patience, and great consideration for its contributors and reviewers. His leadership elevated ETR&D to its position as a major journal in educational psychology and technology, as well as establishing it as the scholarly centerpiece of AECT.
While Steve has retired from the University of Memphis and is stepping down from his position as the Research Editor of ETR&D, he is not really retiring. He is continuing to serve ETR&D. He is passing along insights and practical guidance about being an effective ETR&D Research Editor to Mike Hannafin, the incoming Research Editor. In addition, Steve specifically asked to remain involved as a reviewer and member of the Board of Consulting Editors for the Research Section, and of course this request will be honored. His new research position with Johns Hopkins University will hopefully result in submissions to ETR&D as well.
Abstract
The current study investigates whether embedding support may provide a solution to sub optimal use of support and whether this is related to learners’ self-regulation skills and goal orientation. Sixty students were divided in a condition where support was embedded and a condition where support was non-embedded. Results reveal that the embedded group used more and spent more time on the use of support. Quality of use differed for one support device only, with quality being higher in the non-embedded group. An interaction with self-regulation was found. High self-regulators use the support devices less optimal when support is embedded. No conclusions could be drawn with respect to goal orientation. Quality of usage and proportional time spent on support influenced learning outcomes.
Keywords Support devices - Learner control - Learning environments - Self-regulation - Goal orientation
Abstract
This study explores the barriers associated with teachers implementing information and communication technology-assisted collaborative project-based learning (ICTCPrjBL) as a classroom teaching methodology with students. We used a Web-based Delphi method to engage experienced educators in anonymous consensus building consisting of three rounds of surveys. The Round 1 analysis yielded 51 barriers. The Round 2 analysis produced descriptive statistics (range, mean, and standard deviation) on the importance of each barrier. The Round 3 analysis confirmed 16 out of the 51 (31.4%) barriers as “moderately significant” to “very significant” to implementing ICTCPrjBL. Important contributions of this study include: (a) identification of barriers to implementing ICTCPrjBL that can inform the literature and promote greater utilization throughout the educational community and (b) a cross comparison of barriers between North America, Eastern Europe, and Africa to examine regional differences.
Keywords ICT - Project-based learning - Telecollaboration - Delphi study
Abstract The present moment in the history of higher education requires setting strategies and specific action plans to guarantee a place in the highly competitive and demanding world scenario. The incorporation of information and communication technologies is one of the feasible paths to be considered, but this requires formulating proposals insuring appropriate use of said technologies seeking improvement of education quality. For this purpose, Universidad de La Sabana has developed an instructional design model based on learning objects.
Keywords Educational technology - e-Learning - Instructional design - Learning objects - New information and communication technologies - Virtual learning environments
Abstract The learning object remains an ill-defined concept, despite numerous and extensive discussion in the literature. This paper attempts to address this problem by providing a classification that potentially brings together various perspectives of what a learning object may be. Six unique types of learning objects are proposed and discussed: presentation, practice, simulation, conceptual models, information and contextual representation objects. The common characteristics of each are synthesized in a proposal that a learning object is best described as a representation designed to afford uses in different educational contexts. The classification of learning objects proposed could be useful as a framework for designers of digital resources and for those engaged in use of these resources in educational contexts.
Keywords Learning object - Technology integration - Design - Classification - Representations - Presentation object - Practice object - Simulation object - Conceptual model object - Information object - Contextual representation object
Abstract While the importance of viewing learning as knowledge creation is gradually recognized (Paavola et al. Computer-supported collaborative learning: foundations for a CSCL community 2002; Rev Educ Res 74:557–576 2004), an important question remains to be answered—what represents an effective instructional design to support collaborative creative learning? This paper argues for the need to move away from efficiency-oriented instructional design to innovation-oriented instructional design if learning as knowledge creation is to be pursued as an important instructional goal. The rationale in support of this argument is discussed from four different theoretical perspectives and an idea-centered, principle-based design approach as an example is proposed for discussion.
Keywords Knowledge building - Knowledge creation - Principle-based design - Idea-centered design - Idea improvement - Community knowledge - Instructional design
Abstract This study was conducted to identify the most productive institutions and the most productive ETR&D authors from 1989 to 2008. Productivity scores were calculated using the number of first, second and third authorships in the journal. Arizona State University had both the highest institutional productivity score and the most authorships overall, while Florida State University had the most first authorships. Michael Hannafin of the University of Georgia ranked first in author productivity score and tied for first with Howard Sullivan of Arizona State for total authorships. David Jonassen of the University of Missouri had the most first authorships. Productivity patterns among top-ranked institutions and top-ranked authors are discussed.
Keywords AECT - ETR&D - Productive institutions - Productive authors
Abstract In this study, we used qualitative methods to help us better understand the experiences of instructors as they are persuaded to adopt a course management system and integrate it into their teaching. We discuss several patterns explaining how instructors implemented Blackboard, a CMS, by experimenting with individual features, facing both technical and integration challenges, and attempting to adapt Blackboard features to match their goals and practices. We also give explanations for why instructors either (a) embraced the tool and grew more dependent on it, (b) reduced their use of the tool to only some features, or (c) discontinued the tool and actively sought replacement options. In this paper we explain why instructors fell into any one of these three areas and what implications this may have for training and support needs.
Keywords CMS - Blackboard - Course management system - Adoption - Integration - Evaluation
Abstract This article reviews past empirical studies on the use of audio podcast (hereby referred to as podcast) in K-12 and higher education settings. Using the constant comparative method, this review is organized into three major research areas or topics: (a) participants’ podcast usage profile, (b) effects of podcast on learners’ outcomes, and (b) institutional aspects. Findings suggest that the most common use of podcasting is limited to either instructors distributing podcast recordings of lectures or supplementary materials for students to review subject material at their own time and place. A majority of the previous studies were descriptive, and were conducted in higher education and traditional course settings. Students generally enjoy using podcast, and tend to listen to the podcasts at home using desktop computers, rather than on the move (e.g., commuting to school) with a mobile device. Probably the main benefit of podcasting is that it allows students to listen to specific material that they missed or did not understand multiple times. The availability of podcast does not appear to encourage students to skip classes. We also discuss limitations of previous empirical studies, and provide some directions for future research related to the use of podcast in education settings.
Keywords Podcast - K12 - Higher education - Review of research
Introduction
This book is a valuable resource for anyone involved with the design of instruction. Universal design is a concept that has risen to popularity during the past decade. Defined as making products useful for as many people as possible, the term is applied to situations involving special needs populations and even people with diverse learning styles or preferences. The concept has been applied to the design of products, interfaces, and even physical environments. Ironically, the reviewers of this text concluded their work on World Usability Day. World Usability Day, November 14, 2006, promoted the value of usability engineering and user-centered design and the belief that every user has the responsibility to ask for things that work better.
Currently available only in hard cover, Universal Principles of Design is the kind of book that would be just as suited to an instructional designer’s library as it would be to a coffee table in the center of your living room. The book’s clean, two-page format, consisting of a single page of text with an opposing page of illustrations (on each design principle), and the soft hues, simple font, and alphabetical presentation of principles, serves to model many of the 100 concepts it describes. Each of the various concepts, taken from numerous disciplines, is described in terms of utility, misuse, and suggestions for implementation, with supporting references. In addition to a standard table of contents, the authors provide a categorical table of contents that presents the principles under five guiding questions. These questions frame the contents into categories that a novice designer might consider when embarking on a project.
Examples of the principles covered in the text include techniques rooted in psychology (e.g., operant conditioning), engineering (e.g., structural forms), and classical architecture (e.g., golden ratio). Contemporary standards like the advance organizer, chunking, and mnemonic devices, as well as more obscure practices, like baby-face bias and threat detection, are all given equal mention. In certain cases, the authors provide interesting references to historical applications of a specific technique, such as how the government considered using pigeon’s during World War II to direct bombs to their targets.
Abstract
This article describes the design and formative evaluation of a Web-based tool that supports curriculum developers in constructing competence maps. Competence maps describe final attainment levels of educational programs in terms of—interrelated—competencies. Key requirements for the competence-mapping tool were validity and practicality. Validity refers to internal consistency and meaningful links to the external realities represented. Practicality refers to a design approach of evolutionary prototyping, in which feedback from intended users and domain experts is collected throughout the development process. Formative evaluations of four prototypes were conducted. Measures of design, appeal, goal, content, confidence and relevance showed that the tool is practical. The article describes the formative evaluation process and concludes with a description of the modified tool from the perspective of the user and the instructional designer.
Keywords Competence maps - Formative evaluation - Insrtuctional design tools - Performance support - Usability
Abstract
This paper explored how the use of weblogs within the portfolio framework affected portfolio production and development for student teachers, and how the weblog-based electronic portfolio (WBEP) shaped student teachers’ reflective practice during the student teaching practicum. The individuals participating in this study consisted of 31 elementary school student teachers from a national university’s teacher education program in Taiwan. Qualitative data analysis revealed that about half the participants’ WBEP maturation level were at Level 2, the Curriculum Vitae WBEP. The two most prominent features of the WBEP platform on participants’ reflective practice were personal editorship and dialogues with others. Additionally, blog publicity promoted mandated dossier-like portfolios with which to evaluate performance with respect to external evaluation requirements. Thus, the reflective themes of most WBEP contents were rather uniform in the study.
Keywords Computer mediated communication - Distance education - Post-secondary education - Weblog in education
Abstract The twenty-first century economy often requires the innovative production of conceptual and physical artifacts. These innovations frequently are developed collaboratively within communities of workers. Previous theories about the nature of work and learning within communities have emphasized shared meaning or shared practice, but now shared innovation is required. In this paper, I describe the development of a model for conceptualizing and studying shared innovation within communities. This model was created from merging elements of social learning and creativity/innovation theories. I explain that at an intersection of these two domains is a unique kind of social structure, called a Community of Innovation, or COI. I conclude by describing the characteristics of a COI and its implications for design and research.
Keywords Communities of practice - Innovation - Creativity - Communities - Collaboration - Social learning theory - Communities of innovation - Information age - Innovation economy - Social learning
Abstract We examined how self-regulated learning (SRL) and externally-facilitated self-regulated learning (ERL) differentially affected adolescents’ learning about the circulatory system while using hypermedia. A total of 128 middle-school and high school students with little prior knowledge of the topic were randomly assigned to either the SRL or ERL condition. Learners in the SRL condition regulated their own learning, while learners in the ERL condition had access to a human tutor who facilitated their self-regulated learning. We converged product (pretest-posttest shifts in students’ mental models and declarative knowledge measures) with process (think-aloud protocols) data to examine the effectiveness of self- versus externally-facilitated regulated learning. Findings revealed that learners in the ERL condition gained statistically significantly more declarative knowledge and that a greater number of participants in this condition displayed a more advanced mental model on the posttest. Verbal protocol data indicated that learners in the ERL condition regulated their learning by activating prior knowledge, engaging in several monitoring activities, deploying several effective strategies, and engaging in adaptive help-seeking. By contrast, learners in the SRL condition used ineffective strategies and engaged in fewer monitoring activities. Based on these findings, we present design principles for adaptive hypermedia learning environments, engineered to foster students’ self-regulated learning about complex and challenging science topics.
Keywords Self-regulated learning - External regulation - Human tutoring - Hypermedia - Science - Mental models - Metacognition - Mixed methods
/***
|''Name:''|zh-HantTranslationPlugin|
|''Description:''|Translation of TiddlyWiki into Traditional Chinese|
|''Source:''|http://tiddlywiki-zh.googlecode.com/svn/trunk/|
|''Subversion:''|http://svn.tiddlywiki.org/Trunk/association/locales/core/zh-Hant/locale.zh-Hant.js|
|''Author:''|BramChen (bram.chen (at) gmail (dot) com)|
|''Version:''|2.6|
|''Date:''|Oct 13, 2009|
|''Comments:''|Please make comments at http://groups.google.com/group/TiddlyWiki-zh/|
|''License:''|[[Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 License|http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/]]|
|''~CoreVersion:''|2.4.1|
***/
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sync: {text: "同步", tooltip: "將你的資料內容與外部伺服器與檔案同步", content: '<<sync>>'},
importTask: {text: "導入", tooltip: "自其他檔案或伺服器導入文章或套件", content: '<<importTiddlers>>'},
tweak: {text: "選項", tooltip: "改變此 TiddlyWiki 的顯示與行為的設定", content: '<<options>>'},
upgrade: {text: "更新", tooltip: "更新 TiddlyWiki 核心程式", content: '<<upgrade>>'},
plugins: {text: "套件管理", tooltip: "管理已安裝的套件", content: '<<plugins>>'}
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chkIncrementalSearch: "隨打即找搜尋",
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chkSaveBackups: "儲存變更前,保留備份檔案",
chkAutoSave: "自動儲存變更",
chkGenerateAnRssFeed: "儲存變更時,也儲存 RSS feed",
chkSaveEmptyTemplate: "儲存變更時,也儲存空白範本",
chkOpenInNewWindow: "於新視窗開啟連結",
chkToggleLinks: "點擊已開啟文章連結時,將其關閉",
chkHttpReadOnly: "非本機瀏覽文件時,隱藏編輯功能",
chkForceMinorUpdate: "修改文章時,不變更作者名稱與日期時間",
chkConfirmDelete: "刪除文章前須確認",
chkInsertTabs: "使用 tab 鍵插入定位字元,而非跳至下一個欄位",
txtBackupFolder: "存放備份檔案的資料夾",
txtMaxEditRows: "編輯模式中顯示列數",
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unsavedChangesWarning: "注意! 尚未儲存變更\n\n[確定]存檔,或[取消]放棄存檔?",
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saveInstructions: "SaveChanges",
unsupportedTWFormat: "未支援此 TiddlyWiki 格式:'%0'",
tiddlerSaveError: "儲存文章 '%0' 時,發生錯誤。",
tiddlerLoadError: "載入文章 '%0' 時,發生錯誤。",
wrongSaveFormat: "無法使用格式 '%0' 儲存,請使用標准格式存放",
invalidFieldName: "無效的欄位名稱:%0",
fieldCannotBeChanged: "無法變更欄位:'%0'",
loadingMissingTiddler: "正從伺服器 '%1' 的:\n\n工作區 '%3' 中的 '%2' 擷取文章 '%0'",
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tiddlerTooltip: "檢視全文",
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merge(config.messages,{
dates: {
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days: ["星期日", "星期一","星期二", "星期三", "星期四", "星期五", "星期六"],
shortMonths: ["一", "二", "三", "四", "五", "六", "七", "八", "九", "十", "十一", "十二"],
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merge(config.macros.allTags,{
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noTags: "沒有標籤"});
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config.macros.list.touched.prompt = "自下載或新增後被修改過的文章";
merge(config.macros.closeAll,{
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prompt: "關閉所有開啟中的 tiddler (編輯中除外)"});
merge(config.macros.permaview,{
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merge(config.macros.newTiddler,{
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title: "新增文章",
accessKey: "N"});
merge(config.macros.newJournal,{
label: "新增日誌",
prompt: "新增 jounal",
accessKey: "J"});
merge(config.macros.options,{
wizardTitle: "增訂的進階選項",
step1Title: "增訂的選項儲存於瀏覽器的 cookies",
step1Html: "<input type='hidden' name='markList'></input><br><input type='checkbox' checked='false' name='chkUnknown'>顯示未知選項</input>",
unknownDescription: "//(未知)//",
listViewTemplate: {
columns: [
{name: 'Option', field: 'option', title: "選項", type: 'String'},
{name: 'Description', field: 'description', title: "說明", type: 'WikiText'},
{name: 'Name', field: 'name', title: "名稱", type: 'String'}
],
rowClasses: [
{className: 'lowlight', field: 'lowlight'}
]}
});
merge(config.macros.plugins,{
wizardTitle: "擴充套件管理",
step1Title: "- 已載入之套件",
step1Html: "<input type='hidden' name='markList'></input>", // DO NOT TRANSLATE
skippedText: "(此套件因剛加入,故尚未執行)",
noPluginText: "未安裝套件",
confirmDeleteText: "確認是否刪除所選套件:\n\n%0",
removeLabel: "移除 systemConfig 標籤",
removePrompt: "移除 systemConfig 標籤",
deleteLabel: "刪除",
deletePrompt: "永遠刪除所選套件",
listViewTemplate : {
columns: [
{name: 'Selected', field: 'Selected', rowName: 'title', type: 'Selector'},
{name: 'Tiddler', field: 'tiddler', title: "套件", type: 'Tiddler'},
{name: 'Description', field: 'desc', title: "說明", type: 'String'},
{name: 'Version', field: 'Version', title: "版本", type: 'String'},
{name: 'Size', field: 'size', tiddlerLink: 'size', title: "大小", type: 'Size'},
{name: 'Forced', field: 'forced', title: "強制執行", tag: 'systemConfigForce', type: 'TagCheckbox'},
{name: 'Disabled', field: 'disabled', title: "停用", tag: 'systemConfigDisable', type: 'TagCheckbox'},
{name: 'Executed', field: 'executed', title: "已載入", type: "Boolean", trueText: "是", falseText: "否"},
{name: 'Startup Time', field: 'startupTime', title: "載入時間", type: 'String'},
{name: 'Error', field: 'error', title: "載入狀態", type: 'Boolean', trueText: "錯誤", falseText: "正常"},
{name: 'Log', field: 'log', title: "紀錄", type: 'StringList'}
],
rowClasses: [
{className: 'error', field: 'error'},
{className: 'warning', field: 'warning'}
]}
});
merge(config.macros.toolbar,{
moreLabel: "+",
morePrompt: "顯示更多工具列命令",
lessLabel: "-",
lessPrompt: "隱藏部份工具列命令",
separator: "|"
});
merge(config.macros.refreshDisplay,{
label: "刷新",
prompt: "刷新此 TiddlyWiki 顯示"
});
merge(config.macros.importTiddlers,{
readOnlyWarning: "TiddlyWiki 於唯讀模式下,不支援導入文章。請由本機(file://)開啟 TiddlyWiki 文件",
wizardTitle: "自其他檔案或伺服器導入文章",
step1Title: "步驟一:指定伺服器或來源文件",
step1Html: "指定伺服器類型:<select name='selTypes'><option value=''>選取...</option></select><br>請輸入網址或路徑:<input type='text' size=50 name='txtPath'><br>...或選擇來源文件:<input type='file' size=50 name='txtBrowse'><br><hr>...或選擇指定的饋入來源:<select name='selFeeds'><option value=''>選取...</option></select>",
openLabel: "開啟",
openPrompt: "開啟檔案或",
openError: "讀取來源文件時發生錯誤",
statusOpenHost: "正與伺服器建立連線",
statusGetWorkspaceList: "正在取得可用之文章清單",
errorGettingTiddlerList: "取得文章清單時發生錯誤,請點選「取消」後重試。",
step2Title: "步驟二:選擇工作區",
step2Html: "輸入工作區名稱:<input type='text' size=50 name='txtWorkspace'><br>...或選擇工作區:<select name='selWorkspace'><option value=''>選取...</option></select>",
cancelLabel: "取消",
cancelPrompt: "取消本次導入動作",
statusOpenWorkspace: "正在開啟工作區",
statusGetTiddlerList: "正在取得可用之文章清單",
step3Title: "步驟三:選擇欲導入之文章",
step3Html: "<input type='hidden' name='markList'></input><br><input type='checkbox' checked='true' name='chkSync'>保持這些文章與伺服器的連結,便於同步後續的變更。</input><br><input type='checkbox' name='chkSave'>儲存此伺服器的詳細資訊於標籤為 'systemServer' 的文章名為:</input> <input type='text' size=25 name='txtSaveTiddler'>",
importLabel: "導入",
importPrompt: "導入所選文章",
confirmOverwriteText: "確定要覆寫這些文章:\n\n%0",
step4Title: "步驟四:正在導入%0 篇文章",
step4Html: "<input type='hidden' name='markReport'></input>", // DO NOT TRANSLATE
doneLabel: "完成",
donePrompt: "關閉",
statusDoingImport: "正在導入文章 ...",
statusDoneImport: "所選文章已導入",
systemServerNamePattern: "%2 位於 %1",
systemServerNamePatternNoWorkspace: "%1",
confirmOverwriteSaveTiddler: "此 tiddler '%0' 已經存在。點擊「確定」以伺服器上料覆寫之,或「取消」不變更後離開",
serverSaveTemplate: "|''Type:''|%0|\n|''網址:''|%1|\n|''工作區:''|%2|\n\n此文為自動產生紀錄伺服器之相關資訊。",
serverSaveModifier: "(系統)",
listViewTemplate: {
columns: [
{name: 'Selected', field: 'Selected', rowName: 'title', type: 'Selector'},
{name: 'Tiddler', field: 'tiddler', title: "文章", type: 'Tiddler'},
{name: 'Size', field: 'size', tiddlerLink: 'size', title: "大小", type: 'Size'},
{name: 'Tags', field: 'tags', title: "標籤", type: 'Tags'}
],
rowClasses: [
]}
});
merge(config.macros.upgrade,{
wizardTitle: "更新 TiddlyWiki 核心程式",
step1Title: "更新或修補此 TiddlyWiki 至最新版本",
step1Html: "您將更新至最新版本的 TiddlyWiki 核心程式 (自 <a href='%0' class='externalLink' target='_blank'>%1</a>)。 在更新過程中,您的資料將被保留。<br><br>請注意:更新核心可能不相容於其他套件。若對更新的檔案有問題,詳見 <a href='http://www.tiddlywiki.org/wiki/CoreUpgrades' class='externalLink' target='_blank'>http://www.tiddlywiki.org/wiki/CoreUpgrades</a>",
errorCantUpgrade: "j無法更新此 TiddlyWiki. 您只能自本機端的 TiddlyWiki 檔案執行更新程序",
errorNotSaved: "執行更新之前,請先儲存變更",
step2Title: "確認更新步驟",
step2Html_downgrade: "您的 TiddlyWiki 將自 %1 版降級至 %0版。<br><br>不建議降級至較舊的版本。",
step2Html_restore: "此 TiddlyWiki 核心已是最新版 (%0)。<br><br>您可以繼續更新作業以確認核心程式未曾毀損。",
step2Html_upgrade: "您的 TiddlyWiki 将自 %1 版更新至 %0 版",
upgradeLabel: "更新",
upgradePrompt: "準備更新作業",
statusPreparingBackup: "準備備份中",
statusSavingBackup: "備份檔案",
errorSavingBackup: "備份檔案時發生問題",
statusLoadingCore: "核心程式載入中",
errorLoadingCore: "載入核心程式時,發生錯誤",
errorCoreFormat: "新版核心程式發生錯誤",
statusSavingCore: "正在儲存新版核心程式",
statusReloadingCore: "新版核心程式載入中",
startLabel: "開始",
startPrompt: "開始更新作業",
cancelLabel: "取消",
cancelPrompt: "取消更新作業",
step3Title: "已取消更新作業",
step3Html: "您已取消更新作業"
});
merge(config.macros.sync,{
listViewTemplate: {
columns: [
{name: 'Selected', field: 'selected', rowName: 'title', type: 'Selector'},
{name: 'Tiddler', field: 'tiddler', title: "文章", type: 'Tiddler'},
{name: 'Server Type', field: 'serverType', title: "伺服器類型", type: 'String'},
{name: 'Server Host', field: 'serverHost', title: "伺服器主機", type: 'String'},
{name: 'Server Workspace', field: 'serverWorkspace', title: "伺服器工作區", type: 'String'},
{name: 'Status', field: 'status', title: "同步情形", type: 'String'},
{name: 'Server URL', field: 'serverUrl', title: "伺服器網址", text: "檢視", type: 'Link'}
],
rowClasses: [
],
buttons: [
{caption: "同步更新這些文章", name: 'sync'}
]},
wizardTitle: "將你的資料內容與外部伺服器與檔案同步",
step1Title: "選擇欲同步的文章",
step1Html: '<input type="hidden" name="markList"></input>', // DO NOT TRANSLATE
syncLabel: "同步",
syncPrompt: "同步更新這些文章",
hasChanged: "已更動",
hasNotChanged: "未更動",
syncStatusList: {
none: {text: "...", display:null, className:'notChanged'},
changedServer: {text: "伺服器資料已更動", display:null, className:'changedServer'},
changedLocally: {text: "本機資料已更動", display:null, className:'changedLocally'},
changedBoth: {text: "已同時更新本機與伺服器上的資料", display:null, className:'changedBoth'},
notFound: {text: "伺服器無此資料", display:null, className:'notFound'},
putToServer: {text: "已儲存更新資料至伺服器", display:null, className:'putToServer'},
gotFromServer: {text: "已從伺服器擷取更新資料", display:null, className:'gotFromServer'}
}
});
merge(config.macros.annotations,{
});
merge(config.commands.closeTiddler,{
text: "關閉",
tooltip: "關閉本文"});
merge(config.commands.closeOthers,{
text: "關閉其他",
tooltip: "關閉其他文章"});
merge(config.commands.editTiddler,{
text: "編輯",
tooltip: "編輯本文",
readOnlyText: "檢視",
readOnlyTooltip: "檢視本文之原始內容"});
merge(config.commands.saveTiddler,{
text: "完成",
tooltip: "確定修改"});
merge(config.commands.cancelTiddler,{
text: "取消",
tooltip: "取消修改",
warning: "確定取消對 '%0' 的修改嗎?",
readOnlyText: "完成",
readOnlyTooltip: "返回正常顯示模式"});
merge(config.commands.deleteTiddler,{
text: "刪除",
tooltip: "刪除文章",
warning: "確定刪除 '%0'?"});
merge(config.commands.permalink,{
text: "引用連結",
tooltip: "本文引用連結"});
merge(config.commands.references,{
text: "引用",
tooltip: "引用本文的文章",
popupNone: "本文未被引用"});
merge(config.commands.jump,{
text: "捲頁",
tooltip: "捲頁至其他已開啟的文章"});
merge(config.commands.syncing,{
text: "同步",
tooltip: "本文章與伺服器或其他外部檔案的同步資訊",
currentlySyncing: "<div>同步類型:<span class='popupHighlight'>'%0'</span></"+"div><div>與伺服器:<span class='popupHighlight'>%1 同步</span></"+"div><div>工作區:<span class='popupHighlight'>%2</span></"+"div>", // Note escaping of closing <div> tag
notCurrentlySyncing: "無進行中的同步動作",
captionUnSync: "停止同步此文章",
chooseServer: "與其他伺服器同步此文章:",
currServerMarker: "\u25cf ",
notCurrServerMarker: " "});
merge(config.commands.fields,{
text: "欄位",
tooltip: "顯示此文章的擴充資訊",
emptyText: "此文章沒有擴充欄位",
listViewTemplate: {
columns: [
{name: 'Field', field: 'field', title: "擴充欄位", type: 'String'},
{name: 'Value', field: 'value', title: "內容", type: 'String'}
],
rowClasses: [
],
buttons: [
]}});
merge(config.shadowTiddlers,{
DefaultTiddlers: "[[GettingStarted]]",
GettingStarted: "使用此 TiddlyWiki 的空白範本之前,請先修改以下預設文章:\n* SiteTitle 及 SiteSubtitle:網站的標題和副標題,顯示於頁面上方<br />(在儲存變更後,將顯示於瀏覽器視窗的標題列)。\n* MainMenu:主選單(通常在頁面左側)。\n* DefaultTiddlers:內含一些文章的標題,可於載入TiddlyWiki 後的預設開啟。\n請輸入您的大名,作為所建立/ 編輯的文章署名:<<option txtUserName>>",
MainMenu: "[[使用說明|GettingStarted]]\n\n\n版本:<<version>>",
OptionsPanel: "這些設定將暫存於瀏覽器\n請簽名<<option txtUserName>>\n (範例:WikiWord)\n\n <<option chkSaveBackups>> 儲存備份\n <<option chkAutoSave>> 自動儲存\n <<option chkRegExpSearch>> 正規式搜尋\n <<option chkCaseSensitiveSearch>> 區分大小寫搜尋\n <<option chkAnimate>> 使用動畫顯示\n----\n [[進階選項|AdvancedOptions]]",
SiteTitle: "我的 TiddlyWiki",
SiteSubtitle: "一個可重複使用的個人網頁式筆記本",
SiteUrl: '',
SideBarOptions: '<<search>><<closeAll>><<permaview>><<newTiddler>><<newJournal " YYYY年0MM月0DD日" "日誌">><<saveChanges>><<slider chkSliderOptionsPanel OptionsPanel "偏好設定 \u00bb" "變更 TiddlyWiki 選項">>',
SideBarTabs: '<<tabs txtMainTab "最近更新" "依更新日期排序" TabTimeline "全部" "所有文章" TabAll "分類" "所有標籤" TabTags "更多" "其他" TabMore>>',
StyleSheet: '[[StyleSheetLocale]]',
TabMore: '<<tabs txtMoreTab "未完成" "內容空白的文章" TabMoreMissing "未引用" "未被引用的文章" TabMoreOrphans "預設文章" "已預設內容的隱藏文章" TabMoreShadowed>>'
});
merge(config.annotations,{
AdvancedOptions: "此預設文章可以存取一些進階選項。",
ColorPalette: "此預設文章裡的設定值,將決定 ~TiddlyWiki 使用者介面的配色。",
DefaultTiddlers: "當 ~TiddlyWiki 在瀏覽器中開啟時,此預設文章裡列出的文章,將被自動顯示。",
EditTemplate: "此預設文章裡的 HTML template 將決定文章進入編輯模式時的顯示版面。",
GettingStarted: "此預設文章提供基本的使用說明。",
ImportTiddlers: "此預設文章提供存取導入中的文章。",
MainMenu: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕左側主選單的內容",
MarkupPreHead: "此文章的內容將加至 TiddlyWiki 文件的 <head> 段落的起始",
MarkupPostHead: "此文章的內容將加至 TiddlyWiki 文件的 <head> 段落的最後",
MarkupPreBody: "此文章的內容將加至 TiddlyWiki 文件的 <body> 段落的起始",
MarkupPostBody: "此文章的內容將加至 TiddlyWiki 文件的 <body> 段落的最後,於 script 區塊之後",
OptionsPanel: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的選項面板裡的內容",
PageTemplate: "此預設文章裡的 HTML template 決定的 ~TiddlyWiki 主要的版面配置",
PluginManager: "此預設文章提供存取套件管理員",
SideBarOptions: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中選項面板裡的內容",
SideBarTabs: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的頁籤面板裡的內容",
SiteSubtitle: "此預設文章的內容為頁面的副標題",
SiteTitle: "此預設文章的內容為頁面的主標題",
SiteUrl: "此預設文章的內容須設定為文件發佈時的完整網址",
StyleSheetColors: "此預設文章內含的 CSS 規則,為相關的頁面元素的配色。''勿修改此文'',請於 StyleSheet 中作增修",
StyleSheet: "此預設文章內容可包含 CSS 規則",
StyleSheetLayout: "此預設文章內含的 CSS 規則,為相關的頁面元素的版面配置。''勿修改此文'',請於 StyleSheet 中作增修",
StyleSheetLocale: "此預設文章內含的 CSS 規則,可依翻譯語系做適當調整",
StyleSheetPrint: "此預設文章內含的 CSS 規則,用於列印時的樣式",
TabAll: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的「全部」頁籤的內容",
TabMore: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的「更多」頁籤的內容",
TabMoreMissing: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的「未完成」頁籤的內容",
TabMoreOrphans: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的「未引用」頁籤的內容",
TabMoreShadowed: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的「預設文章」頁籤的內容",
TabTags: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的「分類」頁籤的內容",
TabTimeline: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的「最近更新」頁籤的內容",
ToolbarCommands: "此預設文章的內容,為顯示於文章工具列之命令",
ViewTemplate: "此預設文章裡的 HTML template 決定文章顯示的樣子"
});
//}}}