<!--{{{-->
<link rel='alternate' type='application/rss+xml' title='RSS' href='index.xml' />
<!--}}}-->
Background: #fff
Foreground: #000
PrimaryPale: #8cf
PrimaryLight: #18f
PrimaryMid: #04b
PrimaryDark: #014
SecondaryPale: #ffc
SecondaryLight: #fe8
SecondaryMid: #db4
SecondaryDark: #841
TertiaryPale: #eee
TertiaryLight: #ccc
TertiaryMid: #999
TertiaryDark: #666
Error: #f88
/*{{{*/
body {background:[[ColorPalette::Background]]; color:[[ColorPalette::Foreground]];}

a {color:[[ColorPalette::PrimaryMid]];}
a:hover {background-color:[[ColorPalette::PrimaryMid]]; color:[[ColorPalette::Background]];}
a img {border:0;}

h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {color:[[ColorPalette::SecondaryDark]]; background:transparent;}
h1 {border-bottom:2px solid [[ColorPalette::TertiaryLight]];}
h2,h3 {border-bottom:1px solid [[ColorPalette::TertiaryLight]];}

.button {color:[[ColorPalette::PrimaryDark]]; border:1px solid [[ColorPalette::Background]];}
.button:hover {color:[[ColorPalette::PrimaryDark]]; background:[[ColorPalette::SecondaryLight]]; border-color:[[ColorPalette::SecondaryMid]];}
.button:active {color:[[ColorPalette::Background]]; background:[[ColorPalette::SecondaryMid]]; border:1px solid [[ColorPalette::SecondaryDark]];}

.header {background:[[ColorPalette::PrimaryMid]];}
.headerShadow {color:[[ColorPalette::Foreground]];}
.headerShadow a {font-weight:normal; color:[[ColorPalette::Foreground]];}
.headerForeground {color:[[ColorPalette::Background]];}
.headerForeground a {font-weight:normal; color:[[ColorPalette::PrimaryPale]];}

.tabSelected{color:[[ColorPalette::PrimaryDark]];
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	border-left:1px solid [[ColorPalette::TertiaryLight]];
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.tabUnselected {color:[[ColorPalette::Background]]; background:[[ColorPalette::TertiaryMid]];}
.tabContents {color:[[ColorPalette::PrimaryDark]]; background:[[ColorPalette::TertiaryPale]]; border:1px solid [[ColorPalette::TertiaryLight]];}
.tabContents .button {border:0;}

#sidebar {}
#sidebarOptions input {border:1px solid [[ColorPalette::PrimaryMid]];}
#sidebarOptions .sliderPanel {background:[[ColorPalette::PrimaryPale]];}
#sidebarOptions .sliderPanel a {border:none;color:[[ColorPalette::PrimaryMid]];}
#sidebarOptions .sliderPanel a:hover {color:[[ColorPalette::Background]]; background:[[ColorPalette::PrimaryMid]];}
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.wizard h2 {color:[[ColorPalette::Foreground]]; border:none;}
.wizardStep {background:[[ColorPalette::Background]]; color:[[ColorPalette::Foreground]];
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.wizardFooter {background:[[ColorPalette::PrimaryPale]];}
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.wizard .changedServer {background:#8080ff;}
.wizard .changedBoth {background:#ff8080;}
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#messageArea {border:1px solid [[ColorPalette::SecondaryMid]]; background:[[ColorPalette::SecondaryLight]]; color:[[ColorPalette::Foreground]];}
#messageArea .button {color:[[ColorPalette::PrimaryMid]]; background:[[ColorPalette::SecondaryPale]]; border:none;}

.popupTiddler {background:[[ColorPalette::TertiaryPale]]; border:2px solid [[ColorPalette::TertiaryMid]];}

.popup {background:[[ColorPalette::TertiaryPale]]; color:[[ColorPalette::TertiaryDark]]; border-left:1px solid [[ColorPalette::TertiaryMid]]; border-top:1px solid [[ColorPalette::TertiaryMid]]; border-right:2px solid [[ColorPalette::TertiaryDark]]; border-bottom:2px solid [[ColorPalette::TertiaryDark]];}
.popup hr {color:[[ColorPalette::PrimaryDark]]; background:[[ColorPalette::PrimaryDark]]; border-bottom:1px;}
.popup li.disabled {color:[[ColorPalette::TertiaryMid]];}
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.popupHighlight {background:[[ColorPalette::Background]]; color:[[ColorPalette::Foreground]];}
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.tiddler .defaultCommand {font-weight:bold;}

.shadow .title {color:[[ColorPalette::TertiaryDark]];}

.title {color:[[ColorPalette::SecondaryDark]];}
.subtitle {color:[[ColorPalette::TertiaryDark]];}

.toolbar {color:[[ColorPalette::PrimaryMid]];}
.toolbar a {color:[[ColorPalette::TertiaryLight]];}
.selected .toolbar a {color:[[ColorPalette::TertiaryMid]];}
.selected .toolbar a:hover {color:[[ColorPalette::Foreground]];}

.tagging, .tagged {border:1px solid [[ColorPalette::TertiaryPale]]; background-color:[[ColorPalette::TertiaryPale]];}
.selected .tagging, .selected .tagged {background-color:[[ColorPalette::TertiaryLight]]; border:1px solid [[ColorPalette::TertiaryMid]];}
.tagging .listTitle, .tagged .listTitle {color:[[ColorPalette::PrimaryDark]];}
.tagging .button, .tagged .button {border:none;}

.footer {color:[[ColorPalette::TertiaryLight]];}
.selected .footer {color:[[ColorPalette::TertiaryMid]];}

.sparkline {background:[[ColorPalette::PrimaryPale]]; border:0;}
.sparktick {background:[[ColorPalette::PrimaryDark]];}

.error, .errorButton {color:[[ColorPalette::Foreground]]; background:[[ColorPalette::Error]];}
.warning {color:[[ColorPalette::Foreground]]; background:[[ColorPalette::SecondaryPale]];}
.lowlight {background:[[ColorPalette::TertiaryLight]];}

.zoomer {background:none; color:[[ColorPalette::TertiaryMid]]; border:3px solid [[ColorPalette::TertiaryMid]];}

.imageLink, #displayArea .imageLink {background:transparent;}

.annotation {background:[[ColorPalette::SecondaryLight]]; color:[[ColorPalette::Foreground]]; border:2px solid [[ColorPalette::SecondaryMid]];}

.viewer .listTitle {list-style-type:none; margin-left:-2em;}
.viewer .button {border:1px solid [[ColorPalette::SecondaryMid]];}
.viewer blockquote {border-left:3px solid [[ColorPalette::TertiaryDark]];}

.viewer table, table.twtable {border:2px solid [[ColorPalette::TertiaryDark]];}
.viewer th, .viewer thead td, .twtable th, .twtable thead td {background:[[ColorPalette::SecondaryMid]]; border:1px solid [[ColorPalette::TertiaryDark]]; color:[[ColorPalette::Background]];}
.viewer td, .viewer tr, .twtable td, .twtable tr {border:1px solid [[ColorPalette::TertiaryDark]];}

.viewer pre {border:1px solid [[ColorPalette::SecondaryLight]]; background:[[ColorPalette::SecondaryPale]];}
.viewer code {color:[[ColorPalette::SecondaryDark]];}
.viewer hr {border:0; border-top:dashed 1px [[ColorPalette::TertiaryDark]]; color:[[ColorPalette::TertiaryDark]];}

.highlight, .marked {background:[[ColorPalette::SecondaryLight]];}

.editor input {border:1px solid [[ColorPalette::PrimaryMid]];}
.editor textarea {border:1px solid [[ColorPalette::PrimaryMid]]; width:100%;}
.editorFooter {color:[[ColorPalette::TertiaryMid]];}
.readOnly {background:[[ColorPalette::TertiaryPale]];}

#backstageArea {background:[[ColorPalette::Foreground]]; color:[[ColorPalette::TertiaryMid]];}
#backstageArea a {background:[[ColorPalette::Foreground]]; color:[[ColorPalette::Background]]; border:none;}
#backstageArea a:hover {background:[[ColorPalette::SecondaryLight]]; color:[[ColorPalette::Foreground]]; }
#backstageArea a.backstageSelTab {background:[[ColorPalette::Background]]; color:[[ColorPalette::Foreground]];}
#backstageButton a {background:none; color:[[ColorPalette::Background]]; border:none;}
#backstageButton a:hover {background:[[ColorPalette::Foreground]]; color:[[ColorPalette::Background]]; border:none;}
#backstagePanel {background:[[ColorPalette::Background]]; border-color: [[ColorPalette::Background]] [[ColorPalette::TertiaryDark]] [[ColorPalette::TertiaryDark]] [[ColorPalette::TertiaryDark]];}
.backstagePanelFooter .button {border:none; color:[[ColorPalette::Background]];}
.backstagePanelFooter .button:hover {color:[[ColorPalette::Foreground]];}
#backstageCloak {background:[[ColorPalette::Foreground]]; opacity:0.6; filter:'alpha(opacity=60)';}
/*}}}*/
/*{{{*/
* html .tiddler {height:1%;}

body {font-size:.75em; font-family:arial,helvetica; margin:0; padding:0;}

h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {font-weight:bold; text-decoration:none;}
h1,h2,h3 {padding-bottom:1px; margin-top:1.2em;margin-bottom:0.3em;}
h4,h5,h6 {margin-top:1em;}
h1 {font-size:1.35em;}
h2 {font-size:1.25em;}
h3 {font-size:1.1em;}
h4 {font-size:1em;}
h5 {font-size:.9em;}

hr {height:1px;}

a {text-decoration:none;}

dt {font-weight:bold;}

ol {list-style-type:decimal;}
ol ol {list-style-type:lower-alpha;}
ol ol ol {list-style-type:lower-roman;}
ol ol ol ol {list-style-type:decimal;}
ol ol ol ol ol {list-style-type:lower-alpha;}
ol ol ol ol ol ol {list-style-type:lower-roman;}
ol ol ol ol ol ol ol {list-style-type:decimal;}

.txtOptionInput {width:11em;}

#contentWrapper .chkOptionInput {border:0;}

.externalLink {text-decoration:underline;}

.indent {margin-left:3em;}
.outdent {margin-left:3em; text-indent:-3em;}
code.escaped {white-space:nowrap;}

.tiddlyLinkExisting {font-weight:bold;}
.tiddlyLinkNonExisting {font-style:italic;}

/* the 'a' is required for IE, otherwise it renders the whole tiddler in bold */
a.tiddlyLinkNonExisting.shadow {font-weight:bold;}

#mainMenu .tiddlyLinkExisting,
	#mainMenu .tiddlyLinkNonExisting,
	#sidebarTabs .tiddlyLinkNonExisting {font-weight:normal; font-style:normal;}
#sidebarTabs .tiddlyLinkExisting {font-weight:bold; font-style:normal;}

.header {position:relative;}
.header a:hover {background:transparent;}
.headerShadow {position:relative; padding:4.5em 0 1em 1em; left:-1px; top:-1px;}
.headerForeground {position:absolute; padding:4.5em 0 1em 1em; left:0px; top:0px;}

.siteTitle {font-size:3em;}
.siteSubtitle {font-size:1.2em;}

#mainMenu {position:absolute; left:0; width:10em; text-align:right; line-height:1.6em; padding:1.5em 0.5em 0.5em 0.5em; font-size:1.1em;}

#sidebar {position:absolute; right:3px; width:16em; font-size:.9em;}
#sidebarOptions {padding-top:0.3em;}
#sidebarOptions a {margin:0 0.2em; padding:0.2em 0.3em; display:block;}
#sidebarOptions input {margin:0.4em 0.5em;}
#sidebarOptions .sliderPanel {margin-left:1em; padding:0.5em; font-size:.85em;}
#sidebarOptions .sliderPanel a {font-weight:bold; display:inline; padding:0;}
#sidebarOptions .sliderPanel input {margin:0 0 0.3em 0;}
#sidebarTabs .tabContents {width:15em; overflow:hidden;}

.wizard {padding:0.1em 1em 0 2em;}
.wizard h1 {font-size:2em; font-weight:bold; background:none; padding:0; margin:0.4em 0 0.2em;}
.wizard h2 {font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold; background:none; padding:0; margin:0.4em 0 0.2em;}
.wizardStep {padding:1em 1em 1em 1em;}
.wizard .button {margin:0.5em 0 0; font-size:1.2em;}
.wizardFooter {padding:0.8em 0.4em 0.8em 0;}
.wizardFooter .status {padding:0 0.4em; margin-left:1em;}
.wizard .button {padding:0.1em 0.2em;}

#messageArea {position:fixed; top:2em; right:0; margin:0.5em; padding:0.5em; z-index:2000; _position:absolute;}
.messageToolbar {display:block; text-align:right; padding:0.2em;}
#messageArea a {text-decoration:underline;}

.tiddlerPopupButton {padding:0.2em;}
.popupTiddler {position: absolute; z-index:300; padding:1em; margin:0;}

.popup {position:absolute; z-index:300; font-size:.9em; padding:0; list-style:none; margin:0;}
.popup .popupMessage {padding:0.4em;}
.popup hr {display:block; height:1px; width:auto; padding:0; margin:0.2em 0;}
.popup li.disabled {padding:0.4em;}
.popup li a {display:block; padding:0.4em; font-weight:normal; cursor:pointer;}
.listBreak {font-size:1px; line-height:1px;}
.listBreak div {margin:2px 0;}

.tabset {padding:1em 0 0 0.5em;}
.tab {margin:0 0 0 0.25em; padding:2px;}
.tabContents {padding:0.5em;}
.tabContents ul, .tabContents ol {margin:0; padding:0;}
.txtMainTab .tabContents li {list-style:none;}
.tabContents li.listLink { margin-left:.75em;}

#contentWrapper {display:block;}
#splashScreen {display:none;}

#displayArea {margin:1em 17em 0 14em;}

.toolbar {text-align:right; font-size:.9em;}

.tiddler {padding:1em 1em 0;}

.missing .viewer,.missing .title {font-style:italic;}

.title {font-size:1.6em; font-weight:bold;}

.missing .subtitle {display:none;}
.subtitle {font-size:1.1em;}

.tiddler .button {padding:0.2em 0.4em;}

.tagging {margin:0.5em 0.5em 0.5em 0; float:left; display:none;}
.isTag .tagging {display:block;}
.tagged {margin:0.5em; float:right;}
.tagging, .tagged {font-size:0.9em; padding:0.25em;}
.tagging ul, .tagged ul {list-style:none; margin:0.25em; padding:0;}
.tagClear {clear:both;}

.footer {font-size:.9em;}
.footer li {display:inline;}

.annotation {padding:0.5em; margin:0.5em;}

* html .viewer pre {width:99%; padding:0 0 1em 0;}
.viewer {line-height:1.4em; padding-top:0.5em;}
.viewer .button {margin:0 0.25em; padding:0 0.25em;}
.viewer blockquote {line-height:1.5em; padding-left:0.8em;margin-left:2.5em;}
.viewer ul, .viewer ol {margin-left:0.5em; padding-left:1.5em;}

.viewer table, table.twtable {border-collapse:collapse; margin:0.8em 1.0em;}
.viewer th, .viewer td, .viewer tr,.viewer caption,.twtable th, .twtable td, .twtable tr,.twtable caption {padding:3px;}
table.listView {font-size:0.85em; margin:0.8em 1.0em;}
table.listView th, table.listView td, table.listView tr {padding:0px 3px 0px 3px;}

.viewer pre {padding:0.5em; margin-left:0.5em; font-size:1.2em; line-height:1.4em; overflow:auto;}
.viewer code {font-size:1.2em; line-height:1.4em;}

.editor {font-size:1.1em;}
.editor input, .editor textarea {display:block; width:100%; font:inherit;}
.editorFooter {padding:0.25em 0; font-size:.9em;}
.editorFooter .button {padding-top:0px; padding-bottom:0px;}

.fieldsetFix {border:0; padding:0; margin:1px 0px;}

.sparkline {line-height:1em;}
.sparktick {outline:0;}

.zoomer {font-size:1.1em; position:absolute; overflow:hidden;}
.zoomer div {padding:1em;}

* html #backstage {width:99%;}
* html #backstageArea {width:99%;}
#backstageArea {display:none; position:relative; overflow: hidden; z-index:150; padding:0.3em 0.5em;}
#backstageToolbar {position:relative;}
#backstageArea a {font-weight:bold; margin-left:0.5em; padding:0.3em 0.5em;}
#backstageButton {display:none; position:absolute; z-index:175; top:0; right:0;}
#backstageButton a {padding:0.1em 0.4em; margin:0.1em;}
#backstage {position:relative; width:100%; z-index:50;}
#backstagePanel {display:none; z-index:100; position:absolute; width:90%; margin-left:3em; padding:1em;}
.backstagePanelFooter {padding-top:0.2em; float:right;}
.backstagePanelFooter a {padding:0.2em 0.4em;}
#backstageCloak {display:none; z-index:20; position:absolute; width:100%; height:100px;}

.whenBackstage {display:none;}
.backstageVisible .whenBackstage {display:block;}
/*}}}*/
/***
StyleSheet for use when a translation requires any css style changes.
This StyleSheet can be used directly by languages such as Chinese, Japanese and Korean which need larger font sizes.
***/
/*{{{*/
body {font-size:0.8em;}
#sidebarOptions {font-size:1.05em;}
#sidebarOptions a {font-style:normal;}
#sidebarOptions .sliderPanel {font-size:0.95em;}
.subtitle {font-size:0.8em;}
.viewer table.listView {font-size:0.95em;}
/*}}}*/
/*{{{*/
@media print {
#mainMenu, #sidebar, #messageArea, .toolbar, #backstageButton, #backstageArea {display: none !important;}
#displayArea {margin: 1em 1em 0em;}
noscript {display:none;} /* Fixes a feature in Firefox 1.5.0.2 where print preview displays the noscript content */
}
/*}}}*/
<!--{{{-->
<div class='header' macro='gradient vert [[ColorPalette::PrimaryLight]] [[ColorPalette::PrimaryMid]]'>
<div class='headerShadow'>
<span class='siteTitle' refresh='content' tiddler='SiteTitle'></span>&nbsp;
<span class='siteSubtitle' refresh='content' tiddler='SiteSubtitle'></span>
</div>
<div class='headerForeground'>
<span class='siteTitle' refresh='content' tiddler='SiteTitle'></span>&nbsp;
<span class='siteSubtitle' refresh='content' tiddler='SiteSubtitle'></span>
</div>
</div>
<div id='mainMenu' refresh='content' tiddler='MainMenu'></div>
<div id='sidebar'>
<div id='sidebarOptions' refresh='content' tiddler='SideBarOptions'></div>
<div id='sidebarTabs' refresh='content' force='true' tiddler='SideBarTabs'></div>
</div>
<div id='displayArea'>
<div id='messageArea'></div>
<div id='tiddlerDisplay'></div>
</div>
<!--}}}-->
<!--{{{-->
<div class='toolbar' macro='toolbar [[ToolbarCommands::ViewToolbar]]'></div>
<div class='title' macro='view title'></div>
<div class='subtitle'><span macro='view modifier link'></span>, <span macro='view modified date'></span> (<span macro='message views.wikified.createdPrompt'></span> <span macro='view created date'></span>)</div>
<div class='tagging' macro='tagging'></div>
<div class='tagged' macro='tags'></div>
<div class='viewer' macro='view text wikified'></div>
<div class='tagClear'></div>
<!--}}}-->
<!--{{{-->
<div class='toolbar' macro='toolbar [[ToolbarCommands::EditToolbar]]'></div>
<div class='title' macro='view title'></div>
<div class='editor' macro='edit title'></div>
<div macro='annotations'></div>
<div class='editor' macro='edit text'></div>
<div class='editor' macro='edit tags'></div><div class='editorFooter'><span macro='message views.editor.tagPrompt'></span><span macro='tagChooser excludeLists'></span></div>
<!--}}}-->
To get started with this blank [[TiddlyWiki]], you'll need to modify the following tiddlers:
* [[SiteTitle]] & [[SiteSubtitle]]: The title and subtitle of the site, as shown above (after saving, they will also appear in the browser title bar)
* [[MainMenu]]: The menu (usually on the left)
* [[DefaultTiddlers]]: Contains the names of the tiddlers that you want to appear when the TiddlyWiki is opened
You'll also need to enter your username for signing your edits: <<option txtUserName>>
These [[InterfaceOptions]] for customising [[TiddlyWiki]] are saved in your browser

Your username for signing your edits. Write it as a [[WikiWord]] (eg [[JoeBloggs]])

<<option txtUserName>>
<<option chkSaveBackups>> [[SaveBackups]]
<<option chkAutoSave>> [[AutoSave]]
<<option chkRegExpSearch>> [[RegExpSearch]]
<<option chkCaseSensitiveSearch>> [[CaseSensitiveSearch]]
<<option chkAnimate>> [[EnableAnimations]]

----
Also see [[AdvancedOptions]]
<<importTiddlers>>
Keywords:

    * attitudes;
    * contextualized learning;
    * individual learning and multilevel classes;
    * numeracy and other key skills

Abstract  This paper investigates and compares the utilization of online resources to support teaching and learning in two different educational sectors with overlapping student groups in Scotland: secondary schools and further education (FE) colleges. The online ‘Core Skills’ materials included Numeracy, Communication, Information Technology (IT), Problem Solving and Working With Others. The research involved two large-scale national surveys with representative samples of staff drawn from secondary schools and FE colleges, and four qualitative case studies purposively selected to represent a range of geographic locations. The most popular resources were for Numeracy. In the majority of colleges, respondents' attitudes to the materials were positive and the e-resources were used in conjunction with other teaching approaches. The evidence suggested that less motivated learners benefited from the materials when they were contextualized. Among secondary teacher respondents, however, the resources were virtually unknown. The majority of secondary teachers reported that they needed time to evaluate the materials and that they would benefit from specific training related to curriculum-linked e-resources. In conclusion, as the Numeracy materials have been found useful, e-learning in mathematics warrants further investigation among less motivated students who are currently not achieving their potential in secondary schools.

Davidson, J. and Elliot, D. (2007), A comparison of e-learning in Scotland's colleges and secondary schools: the case of National Qualifications in ‘Core Skills’. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 511–522. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00250.x
Keywords:

    * physical manipulatives;
    * polyominoes;
    * problem solving;
    * virtual manipulatives

Abstract

This study develops virtual manipulative, polyominoes kits for junior high school students to explore polyominoes. The current work conducts a non-equivalent group pretest–post-test quasi-experimental design to compare the performance difference between using physical manipulatives and virtual manipulatives in finding the number of polyominoes. Sixty eighth-grade students from two different classes in a junior high school in Taipei County of Taiwan participated in this study. The current research randomly selected one class as the experiment group and the other as the control group. Students in the experiment group used virtual manipulatives to explore polyominoes and those in the control group used physical manipulatives. The results revealed that learning in the experiment group is as effective as that in the control group. This study identifies two obvious strategies (add one and reduce) among students in both groups. New ideas, including using new symbols to record the results and considering the influence of symmetry and rotation on the figures, occurred in the virtual manipulative group. Students in the virtual environment paid much more attention to exploring the polyomino problem.

Yuan, Y., Lee, C.-Y. and Wang, C.-H. (2010), A comparison study of polyominoes explorations in a physical and virtual manipulative environment. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 307–316. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00352.x
Keywords:

    * augmented reality;
    * handheld device;
    * immersive learning;
    * task-based language learning;
    * ubiquitous learning

Abstract

This paper reported the results of a study that aimed to construct a sensor and handheld augmented reality (AR)-supported ubiquitous learning (u-learning) environment called the Handheld English Language Learning Organization (HELLO), which is geared towards enhancing students' language learning. The HELLO integrates sensors, AR, ubiquitous computing and information technologies. It is composed of two subsystems: an English learning management system and a u-learning tool. In order to evaluate the effects of the proposed learning environment on the learning performance of students, a case study on English learning was conducted on a school campus. The participants included high school teachers and students. A learning course entitled ‘My Campus’ was conducted in the class; it included three activities, namely ‘Campus Environment’, ‘Campus Life’ and ‘Campus Story’. The evaluation results showed that the proposed HELLO and the learning activities could improve the students' English listening and speaking skills.

Liu, T.-Y. (2009), A context-aware ubiquitous learning environment for language listening and speaking. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 515–527. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00329.x
Keywords:

    * computer resource learning;
    * help software;
    * learn;
    * preservice teachers;
    * strategies

Abstract  A comprehensive, formal comparison of strategies used by preservice teachers to learn how to use new technology has yet to be researched. Understanding the relative strengths and weakness of learning strategies would provide useful guidance to educators and students. The purpose of the current study was to explore the effectiveness of four learning strategies: collaboration, using authentic tasks, formal instruction and exploratory learning. Seventy-four preservice teachers (25 male, 49 female) were surveyed at the beginning and end of an 8-month, consecutive, Bachelor of Education programme, with respect to their learning strategies, change in computer knowledge and use of computers in the classroom. Collaborative learning and use of authentic tasks were the most preferred strategies – formal instruction was the least preferred. A collaborative approach to learning was the best predictor of gains in computer knowledge. Authentic tasks and collaborative strategies were significant predictors of teacher use of computers in the classroom. Preference for authentic tasks was the only predictor of student use of computers. Regardless of strategy preference, selecting more than one primary learning tool was significantly correlated with amount learned and use of the computers in the classroom. Ability was not related to strategy preference. Finally, females preferred collaborative approach to learning, although they were significantly more open to using multiple strategies than males.

Kay, R. (2007), A formative analysis of how preservice teachers learn to use technology. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 366–383. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00222.x
Keywords:

    * elearning;
    * Latent Semantic Analysis;
    * lifelong learners;
    * peer support;
    * tutor workload

Abstract  The introduction of elearning often leads to an increase in the time staff spends on tutoring. To alleviate the workload of staff tutors, we developed a model for organizing and supporting learner-related interactions in elearning systems. It makes use of the knowledge and experience of peers and builds on the assumption that (lifelong) learners, when instructed and assisted carefully, should be able to assist each other. The model operates at two levels. At level 1, prospective peer tutors are identified, based on a combination of workload and competency indicators. At level 2, the thus identified prospective peer tutors become the actual tutors; this is performed by empowering them with tools and guidelines for the task at hand. The article will situate the model in networks for lifelong learning. For one kind of interactions, answering content-related questions, we will review a set of existing approaches and emerging technologies and describe our model. Finally, we will describe and discuss the results of a simulation of a prototype of the model and discuss to what extent it matches our requirements.


Van Rosmalen, P., Sloep, P., Kester, L., Brouns, F., De Croock, M., Pannekeet, K. and Koper, R. (2008), A learner support model based on peer tutor selection. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 74–86. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00245.x
Keywords:

    * e-learning;
    * Latent Semantic Analysis;
    * lifelong learners;
    * peer support;
    * tutor workload

Abstract

Tutors have only limited time to support students. In this paper, we discuss a model that addresses the question of how to help students answer content-related questions. A small group of students is created, which consists of the student who asked the question and peers who should be able to answer it. Criteria used to compose the group are the content of the question in relation to the knowledge and skills of the peers. The model supports the collaboration with text fragments selected from the study materials. We will introduce the model and briefly discuss the results of the calibration and a simulation of the model. Finally, we will discuss the outcome of an experiment with two groups of approximately 50 students who used the model for a period of 8 weeks. The results indicate that the students positively value the model and that it is possible to resolve a substantial number of their questions.

Van Rosmalen, P., Sloep, P., Brouns, F., Kester, L., Berlanga, A., Bitter, M. and Koper, R. (2008), A model for online learner support based on selecting appropriate peer tutors. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 483–493. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00283.x
Keywords:

    * computer use;
    * multilevel modelling;
    * primary education;
    * school culture;
    * school policies;
    * teachers

Abstract

The central aim of this study was to test a model that integrates determinants of educational computer use. In particular, the article examines teacher and school characteristics that are associated with different types of computer use by primary school teachers. A survey was set up, involving 527 teachers from 68 primary schools in Flanders. A separate questionnaire was administered to information and communication technology (ICT) coordinators from the same schools to gather additional information about cultural and contextual school characteristics. The combined impact of both teacher and school characteristics was explored through a multilevel analysis. Besides the importance of school characteristics, the results reveal differential effects of specific characteristics on specific types of computer use. Cultural school characteristics for instance, such as the schools’ openness to change and the availability of an ICT school policy plan, are positively related to the use of computers as a learning tool and to the adoption of ICT in view of basic computer skills. In contrast, no cultural school characteristic seem to be associated with the use of computers as an information tool. In a comparable way, teacher characteristics are associated with specific types of computer use, e.g. the variable gender. In general, male teachers report integrating computers more often. In this study, it appears that gender differences only exist in relation to the adoption of computers as an information tool. The results demonstrate that a multidimensional approach provides more insight into the characteristics affecting computer use.

Tondeur, J., Valcke, M. and Van Braak, J. (2008), A multidimensional approach to determinants of computer use in primary education: teacher and school characteristics. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 494–506. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00285.x
Keywords:

    * asynchronous communication;
    * declarative commitment;
    * project progression;
    * student teams

Abstract

Teamwork and technology, even as people are seeing their increased use in organizations, are becoming important components of problem-based learning in academic settings. Yet, fostering computer-assisted teamwork is complex and time consuming. Knowing how and when to intervene would prove useful. This study draws from the field of project management to explore how students commit to project goals using collective asynchronous text-based communication technology. Declarative commitments – goal-orientated public, voluntary, explicit and non-retractable messages comprised of a term, an objective and a focus – made by 34 teams during a four-phase 13-week project were analysed qualitatively and quantitatively. Qualitative results show that declarative commitments voluntarily and formally package information about project constraints into a relatively potent message about tasks, coordination and project completion. Team members' suggestions as to what should be carried out in the project and requests for help often preceded others' declarative commitments. As with persuasive communication (i.e. aimed at changing beliefs, attitudes and behaviours), declarative commitments were followed by demands for clarification, new declarative commitments, confirmations of upheld commitments and clear approvals of what was committed to. Looking at project progression from a broader perspective, quantitative analyses show that declarative commitments did partially mediate the relationship between frequencies of task issues and of task solutions. This was particularly pronounced in the mid-point of the project, but it was not the case during the initial or final phases of the project. Taken together, these results suggest that teachers can facilitate computer-assisted learning and project goal attainment by monitoring asynchronous electronic discussions, and by eliciting and structuring declarative commitments.

Chiocchio, F. and Lafrenière, A. (2009), A project management perspective on student's declarative commitments to goals established within asynchronous communication. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 294–305. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00310.x
Keywords:

    * class-wide assessment;
    * curriculum-based measurement;
    * Internet;
    * mathematics;
    * web-based technology

Abstract  Internet technology has offered opportunities to develop ongoing assessment systems for classroom-based evaluation – on a daily basis. In this study, the researcher developed a web-based, curriculum-based measurement system with dynamic features which could generate different types of mathematics probes, track students' progress and provide diagnosed information as well as instructional suggestions for teachers. This paper explores the effects of the system on students' mathematical achievements. A total of 134 third-grade students (9- to 10-year-olds) in four classes participated. The teachers in all groups used the web-based curriculum-based measurement system with different types of curriculum-based measurement probes and growth modeling. The results indicated that the use of class-wide dynamic-growth modeling combined with mixed-type probes enabled the students to perform better than those using single-type probes. This outcome was not seen with the linear-growth modeling groups. The positive findings suggested that applying class-wide dynamic-growth modeling as well as the assessment of integrated mathematics competency in the instructional processes facilitated students' mathematics learning. Therefore, the web-based, curriculum-based measurement system was not only an assessment system, but also a tool for teachers to integrate instructional strategies based on curriculum-based measurement.

Tsuei, M.-P. (2008), A web-based curriculum-based measurement system for class-wide ongoing assessment. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 47–60. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00242.x
Keywords:

    * adaptive educational system;
    * learning style;
    * personalization

Abstract

Personalized instruction is seen as a desideratum of today's e-learning systems. The focus of this paper is on those platforms that use learning styles as personalization criterion called learning style-based adaptive educational systems. The paper presents an innovative approach based on an integrative set of learning preferences that alleviates some of the limitations of similar systems. The adaptive methods used as well as their implementation in a dedicated system (WELSA) are presented, together with a thorough evaluation of the approach. The results of the experimental study involving 64 undergraduate students show that accommodating learning styles in WELSA has a beneficial effect on the learning process.

Popescu, E. (2010), Adaptation provisioning with respect to learning styles in a Web-based educational system: an experimental study. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 243–257. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00364.x
Keywords:

    * adaptation;
    * communicative acts;
    * computer-mediated communication;
    * personalization;
    * sentence openers;
    * structured dialogue

Abstract  In this paper, we present a synchronous text-based communication tool, referred to as Adaptive Communication Tool (ACT), which provides capabilities for adaptation and personalization. ACT supports both the free and the structured form of dialogue. The structured dialogue is implemented by two types of Scaffolding Sentence Templates (SST); i.e. sentence openers or communicative acts. The capability of adaptation is considered in the sense of making suggestions for the supported form of dialogue and SST type and providing the most meaningful and complete set of SST with respect to the learning outcomes addressed by the collaborative learning activity and the model of collaboration followed by the group members. Also, ACT enables learners to have control on the adaptation by selecting the form of dialogue and the SST type they prefer to use and enriching the provided SST set with their own ones in order to cover their communication needs. The results from the formative evaluation of the tool showed that (i) the proposed dialogue form, SST type and the provided set of SST cover students' communication needs, (ii) the capability of personalizing the communication by selecting the desired communication means as well as by enriching the provided SST set satisfied students, and (iii) students used adequately both types of SST resulting into on-task and coherent dialogues.

Gogoulou, A., Gouli, E. and Grigoriadou, M. (2008), Adapting and personalizing the communication in a synchronous communication tool. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 203–216. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00254.x
Keywords:

    * assessment of programming;
    * computerized adaptive assessment;
    * computerized adaptive testing;
    * grading;
    * personalized test;
    * programming assessment

Abstract

This paper presents Programming Adaptive Testing (PAT), a Web-based adaptive testing system for assessing students' programming knowledge. PAT was used in two high school programming classes by 73 students. The question bank of PAT is composed of 443 questions. A question is classified in one out of three difficulty levels. In PAT, the levels of difficulties are adapted to Bloom's taxonomy lower levels, and students are examined in their cognitive domain. This means that PAT has been designed according to pedagogical theories in order to be appropriate for the needs of the course ‘Application Development in a Programming Environment’. If a student answers a question correctly, a harder question is presented, otherwise an easier one. Easy questions examine the student's knowledge, while difficult questions examine the student's skills to apply prior knowledge to new problems. A student answers a personalized test composed of 30 questions. PAT classifies a student in one out of three programming skills' levels. It can predict the corresponding classification of students in Greek National Exams. Furthermore, it can be helpful to both students and teachers. A student could discover his or her programming shortcomings. Similarly, a teacher could objectively assess his or her students as well as discover the subjects that need to be repeated.

Chatzopoulou, D. and Economides, A. (2010), Adaptive assessment of student's knowledge in programming courses. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 258–269. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00363.x
Anagnostopoulos, I. and Bielikova, M. (2010), Adaptive technologies and methods in e/m-Learning and Internet-based education. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 225–226. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00366.x
Keywords:

    * affordance;
    * experiential learning;
    * mobile learning;
    * mobile technology;
    * PDA

Abstract  Experiential learning is the process of creating knowledge through the transformation of experience and has been adopted in an increasing number of areas. This paper investigates the possibility of technological support for experiential learning. A learning activity flow (or script) and a mobile technology system were designed to facilitate students in experiential learning. An experiment was conducted on two fifth-grade classes at an elementary school, one class using personal digital assistants (PDAs) and the other working without them. The results indicate that mobile technologies are effective in improving knowledge creation during experiential learning. The interplay between the mobile technology affordances and the proposed learning flow for experiential learning is thoroughly discussed.

Lai, C.-H., Yang, J.-C., Chen, F.-C., Ho, C.-W. and Chan, T.-W. (2007), Affordances of mobile technologies for experiential learning: the interplay of technology and pedagogical practices. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 326–337. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00237.x
Keywords:

    * blogging;
    * blogs;
    * distance learning;
    * higher education;
    * learning design

Abstract  We report on a study involving Masters-level students who blogged as a part of a distance-learning course at the Open University, UK. We present an empirically-grounded framework that can be used to guide educators when they are considering blogging as part of their courses, and can be used by students' whose courses include blogging activities. In our analysis of semi-structured interviews with students, we identified six factors that influenced their blogging: perceptions of, and need for, an audience; perceptions of, and need for, community; the utility of, and need for comments; presentational style of the blog content; overarching factors related to the technological context; and the pedagogical context of the course. The students' blogging behaviours were varied and depended upon the way in which they addressed each of the six factors. These factors, along with the associated questions in the proposed framework, provide insights about the activity of blogging from a student's perspective. Therefore, the framework can guide the design of blogging activities in courses.

Kerawalla, L., Minocha, S., Kirkup, G. and Conole, G. (2009), An empirically grounded framework to guide blogging in higher education. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 31–42. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00286.x
Keywords:

    * Bayesian networks;
    * e-learning;
    * learning styles;
    * student modeling

Abstract  Students acquire and process information in different ways depending on their learning styles. To be effective, Web-based courses should guarantee that all the students learn despite their different learning styles. To achieve this goal, we have to detect how students learn: reflecting or acting; steadily or in fits and starts; intuitively or sensitively. In a previous work, we have presented an approach that uses Bayesian networks to detect a student's learning style in Web-based courses. In this work, we present an enhanced Bayesian model designed after the analysis of the results obtained when evaluating the approach in the context of an Artificial Intelligence course. We evaluated the precision of our Bayesian approach to infer students’ learning styles from the observation of their actions with a Web-based education system during three semesters. We show how the results from one semester enabled us to adjust our initial model and helped teachers improve the content of the course for the following semester, enhancing in this way students’ learning process. We obtained higher precision values when inferring the learning styles with the enhanced model.

García, P., Schiaffino, S. and Amandi, A. (2008), An enhanced Bayesian model to detect students’ learning styles in Web-based courses. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 305–315. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00262.x
Keywords:

    * assess;
    * evaluate;
    * learning object;
    * quality;
    * secondary school

Abstract

Very few studies have systematically evaluated the effect of learning objects in secondary school classrooms. The vast majority of studies have focussed on higher education. The current study examined the impact of learning objects from the perspective of 850 students and 27 teachers (50 classrooms) of science, mathematics, or social science. The results suggest that teachers typically spend 1 to 2 h finding and preparing for learning object based lesson plans that focus on the review of previous concepts. Both teachers and students are positive about the learning benefits, quality, and engagement value of learning objects, although teachers are more positive than students. Student performance increased significantly – almost 30% – when learning objects were used in conjunction with a variety of teaching strategies. It is reasonable to conclude that learning objects are a viable teaching tool in a secondary school environment.

Kay, R. and Knaack, L. (2008), An examination of the impact of learning objects in secondary school. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 447–461. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00278.x
Keywords:

    * collaborative modeling;
    * computer-supported modeling;
    * modeling activity;
    * modeling patterns

Abstract  This paper reports on a case study with three dyads of high school students (age 14 years) each collaborating on a plant growth modeling task in the computer-supported educational environment ‘ModelsCreator’. Following a qualitative line of research, the present study aims at highlighting the ways in which the collaborating students as well as the facilitator who supported them are engaged in the computer-based modeling ‘activity’. The analysis is carried out with a two-level analytic tool that has been derived within the theoretical framework of ‘activity theory’. Our results show that a wide range of modeling ‘operations’ is activated in the context of the three major modeling ‘actions’ of ‘analysis’, ‘synthesis’ and ‘testing-interpreting’, which take place in the light of the facilitator-driven ‘action’ of cognitive and technical support. Moreover, these actions are combined into ‘modeling units’ of various forms which are repeated several times until the modeling process comes to an end. These many-fold repeats of the ‘modeling unit’ appear to shape a pattern which characterizes the computer-supported shared ‘activity’ as a whole.

Ergazaki, M., Zogza, V. and Komis, V. (2007), Analysing students' shared activity while modeling a biological process in a computer-supported educational environment. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 158–168. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00214.x
Keywords:

    * activity;
    * affordance;
    * case study;
    * constraint;
    * interactive;
    * pedagogy

Abstract  Recent policy initiatives in England have focused on promoting ‘interactive’ teaching in schools, with a clear expectation that this will lead to improvements in learning. This expectation is based on the perceived success of such approaches in other parts of the world. At the same time, there has been a large investment in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) resources, and particularly in interactive whiteboard technology. This paper explores the idea of interactive teaching in relation to the interactive technology which might be used to support it. It explains the development of a framework for the detailed analysis of teaching and learning in activity settings which is designed to represent the features and relationships involved in interactivity. When applied to a case study of interactive teaching during a lesson involving a variety of technology-based activities, the framework reveals a confusion of purpose in students' use of an ICT resource that limits the potential for learning when students are working independently. Discussion of relationships between technical and pedagogical interactivity points a way forward concerning greater focus on learning goals during activity in order to enable learners to be more autonomous in exploiting ICT's affordances, and the conclusion identifies the variables and issues which need to be considered in future research which will illuminate this path.

Kennewell, S., Tanner, H., Jones, S. and Beauchamp, G. (2008), Analysing the use of interactive technology to implement interactive teaching. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 61–73. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00244.x
Keywords:

    * learning management systems;
    * learning styles;
    * navigational behaviour;
    * sequential analysis

Abstract

Providing adaptive features and personalized support by considering students' learning styles in computer-assisted learning systems has high potential in making learning easier for students in terms of reducing their efforts or increasing their performance. In this study, the navigational behaviour of students in an online course within a learning management system was investigated, looking at how students with different learning styles prefer to use and learn in such a course. As a result, several differences in the students' navigation patterns were identified. These findings have several implications for improving adaptivity. First, they showed that students with different learning styles use different strategies to learn and navigate through the course, which can be seen as another argument for providing adaptivity. Second, the findings provided information for extending the adaptive functionality in typical learning management systems. Third, the information about differences in navigational behaviour can contribute towards automatic detection of learning styles, helping in making student modeling approaches more accurate.

Graf, S., Liu, T.-C. and Kinshuk (2010), Analysis of learners' navigational behaviour and their learning styles in an online course. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 116–131. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00336.x
Keywords:

    * prior knowledge activation;
    * coherence;
    * concept mapping;
    * hypermedia;
    * hypertext;
    * mental set

Abstract  We investigated whether and how prior knowledge activation improves learning outcomes for high school (less experienced learners) and university students (experienced learners) in a hypertext environment. Map coherence was defined as the extent to which relationships between the concepts in the map were made explicit. Therefore, we classified the mapping task of creating and labelling lines as low-coherent, and the mapping task of labelling provided lines as high-coherent. Learners were randomly assigned to the conditions of (1) high-coherent knowledge activation; (2) low-coherent knowledge activation; and (3) a baseline condition without prior knowledge activation. We found an overall effect for prior knowledge activation, learning experience, and an interaction between learning experience and the coherence of the prior knowledge activation task on learning outcomes. High school students benefited most from labelling provided lines, while university physics majors benefited most from creating and labelling lines. This interaction effect and effects of the specific mapping tasks on process measures support the claim that different prior knowledge activation tasks are suited for different groups of learners.

Gurlitt, J. and Renkl, A. (2008), Are high-coherent concept maps better for prior knowledge activation? Differential effects of concept mapping tasks on high school vs. university students. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 407–419. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00277.x
Keywords:

    * assessment of digital games;
    * game-based learning;
    * game educational values;
    * online game

Abstract  In recent years, digital games have assumed an important place in the lives of children and adolescents. Effective content design is crucial to the success of digital game-based learning. Therefore, the tool for assessing the effectiveness of game design is accordingly very important for parents and teachers, so that they may encourage or discourage students to play. The purpose of this study is to develop an assessment tool to examine the educational values of digital games. In the first phase of this research, the research team developed the indices for assessing the educational values of digital games. An expert panel consisting of game scholars and professional game designers was established to construct the indices for evaluating digital games in three focus group discussions. Seventy-four game evaluation indices were sorted into seven categories: mentality change, emotional fulfilment, knowledge enhancement, thinking skill development, interpersonal skill development, spatial ability development and bodily coordination. In the second phase of the research, the game designers were asked to assess certain games by using the 74 indices. Meanwhile, the game scholars were also asked to evaluate the same pool of games by the same indices. The assessments by both the scholars and designers were then compared and the similarities were found. This research provided a preliminary framework for future game designers, parents and teachers in assessing educational values of digital games.

Hong, J.-C., Cheng, C.-L., Hwang, M.-Y., Lee, C.-K. and Chang, H.-Y. (2009), Assessing the educational values of digital games. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 423–437. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00319.x
Keywords:

    * facilitation techniques;
    * online discussions;
    * thread growth

Abstract

This study extends the research on asynchronous online discussion (AOD) by providing a perspective on: (1) the growth patterns of discussion threads and (2) the influence of peer- or student-facilitation techniques on thread development. Using the Pointing, Questioning, Resolving and Summarizing (PQRS) facilitation techniques framework, the threaded discussions of seven AOD forums were carefully mapped out and each message in the postings was examined to determine the type of facilitation techniques applied. Results suggest that an online discussion thread grows either one of three patterns: a ‘short thread pattern’, an ‘extended thread pattern’ with an elongated structure or a ‘split thread pattern’ with a broad structure. Results also suggest that the use of Resolving and Summarizing facilitation techniques tends to foster early thread termination. Understanding how each PQRS student-facilitation technique impacts thread development reinforces the need to combine the use of ‘questioning’ techniques with other facilitation techniques to enhance thread continuity. We end by discussing some possible implications and issues for future research.

Chan, J., Hew, K. and Cheung, W. (2009), Asynchronous online discussion thread development: examining growth patterns and peer-facilitation techniques. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 438–452. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00321.x
Keywords:

    * boundary crossing;
    * digital dissonance;
    * digital technologies;
    * learning contexts;
    * Web 2.0

Abstract  Boundaries between formal and informal learning settings are shaped by influences beyond learners' control. This can lead to the proscription of some familiar technologies that learners may like to use from some learning settings. This contested demarcation is not well documented. In this paper, we introduce the term ‘digital dissonance’ to describe this tension with respect to learners' appropriation of Web 2.0 technologies in formal contexts. We present the results of a study that explores learners' in- and out-of-school use of Web 2.0 and related technologies. The study comprises two data sources: a questionnaire and a mapping activity. The contexts within which learners felt their technologies were appropriate or able to be used are also explored. Results of the study show that a sense of ‘digital dissonance’ occurs around learners' experience of Web 2.0 activity in and out of school. Many learners routinely cross institutionally demarcated boundaries, but the implications of this activity are not well understood by institutions or indeed by learners themselves. More needs to be understood about the transferability of Web 2.0 skill sets and ways in which these can be used to support formal learning.

Clark, W., Logan, K., Luckin, R., Mee, A. and Oliver, M. (2009), Beyond Web 2.0: mapping the technology landscapes of young learners. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 56–69. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00305.x
Keywords:

    * Digital natives;
    * net generation;
    * technology;
    * students

Abstract

Previously assumed to be a homogenous and highly skilled group with respect to information and communications technology, the so-called Net Generation has instead been shown to possess a diverse range of technology skills and preferences. To better understand this diversity, we subjected data from 2096 students aged between 17 and 26 from three Australian universities to a cluster analysis. Through this analysis, we identified four distinct types of technology users: power users (14% of sample), ordinary users (27%), irregular users (14%) and basic users (45%). A series of exploratory chi-square analyses revealed significant associations between the different types of technology users and the university that students attended, their gender and age and whether the student was local or international. No associations were found for analyses related discipline area, socio-economic status or rurality of residence. The findings are discussed in light of the rhetoric associated with commentaries about the Net Generation, and suggestions about their implications for teaching and learning in universities are offered.

Kennedy, G., Judd, T., Dalgarno, B. and Waycott, J. (2010), Beyond natives and immigrants: exploring types of net generation students. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 332–343. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00371.x
Keywords:

    * Bernstein;
    * Bourdieu;
    * digital native;
    * education;
    * information and communication technologies;
    * sociology of educational technology

Abstract

The idea of the ‘digital natives’, a generation of tech-savvy young people immersed in digital technologies for which current education systems cannot cater, has gained widespread popularity on the basis of claims rather than evidence. Recent research has shown flaws in the argument that there is an identifiable generation or even a single type of highly adept technology user. For educators, the diversity revealed by these studies provides valuable insights into students' experiences of technology inside and outside formal education. While this body of work provides a preliminary understanding, it also highlights subtleties and complexities that require further investigation. It suggests, for example, that we must go beyond simple dichotomies evident in the digital natives debate to develop a more sophisticated understanding of our students' experiences of technology. Using a review of recent research findings as a starting point, this paper identifies some key issues for educational researchers, offers new ways of conceptualizing key ideas using theoretical constructs from Castells, Bourdieu and Bernstein, and makes a case for how we need to develop the debate in order to advance our understanding.

Bennett, S. and Maton, K. (2010), Beyond the ‘digital natives’ debate: Towards a more nuanced understanding of students' technology experiences. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 321–331. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00360.x
Keywords:

    * elementary education;
    * evaluation of CAL systems;
    * media in education

Abstract It is important for the teacher to choose effective software for students. It is also important for designers to know what features of educational software make it effective. But the results of studies dealing with the effectiveness of educational software are contradictory. One reason for such results might be the fact that meta-analysis covers different kinds of educational software, simulations and drills for example, but it is hard to compare them. Another reason might be that the conditions (instruments, subjects, etc.) of the various studies were different. A third possibility might be that a particular type of educational software could consist of both good and bad characteristics. Therefore, research is needed on the characteristics of educational software. This type of study focuses on a particular kind of educational software, and this article is about the findings of one such study, exploring the characteristics and the effectiveness of drills in Estonian elementary schools. Sixteen characteristics of drills that had statistically significant correlation with student learning, and the influence of these characteristics are discussed as the results of this study. The results indicated that characteristics related to feedback, presentation of information and questions are the most critical evaluating quality of drills and in designing such educational software.

Luik, P. (2007), Characteristics of drills related to development of skills. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 56–68. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00201.x
Keywords:

    * Learning objects;
    * fractions;
    * teacher decision making;
    * self-efficacy

Abstract

Previous research has examined factors influencing teacher decisions to integrate technology using between-teacher designs. This study used a within-teacher design to compare students who were assigned multi-media learning objects for learning fractions with students taught by the same teachers who were not assigned to the technology. There were two conditions: (1) teachers were asked to limit the number of assigned students to 25% of their class (N = 375 grade 7–10 students) and (2) teachers could assign as many students as they wanted (N = 149 grade 7 students). In the constrained decision setting, students assigned to the technology were more likely than students not assigned to score lower on a fractions achievement test, have dysfunctional attitudes towards mathematics learning, have low self-efficacy, exert low effort, and be male. In the unconstrained decision setting, 70% of students were assigned the technology and the only statistically significant predictor was prior achievement. Teachers' criteria were congruent with research identifying correlates of mathematics achievement and comfort with technology.

Ross, J. A., Sibbald, T. and Bruce, C. D. (2009), Characteristics of students assigned to technology-based instruction. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 562–573. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00328.x
Keywords:

    * asynchronous learning environment;
    * computer-supported collaborative learning;
    * interaction patterns;
    * social network analysis

Abstract

Analysis of interaction patterns is one of the most important indicators of quality of learning in educational web forums. Social network analysis (SNA) is gradually assuming importance in the study of interaction patterns as it focuses on the analysis of the interrelationships between individuals, thus providing a holistic perspective on group performance. However, most of the studies that use SNA in computer-supported collaborative learning scenarios derive their data from server log files, on the assumption that this data source reflects the way people really interacted online. This study, the purpose of which is to better understand the communication flows that really occur among users, challenges these assumptions through an experimental study that makes a comparison between the structural method normally used to detect the posting addressees and an approach enriched with semantic coding. Results show that this new coding schema, if compared with traditional structural coding, detected a greater number of addressees, thus allowing a greater number of postings to be included in an SNA adjacency matrix.

Manca, S., Delfino, M. and Mazzoni, E. (2009), Coding procedures to analyse interaction patterns in educational web forums. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 189–200. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00296.x
Keywords:

    * collaborative filtering;
    * e-learning;
    * recommender systems

Abstract

Repositories with educational resources can support the formation of online learning communities by providing a platform for collaboration. Users (e.g. teachers, tutors and learners) access repositories, search for interesting resources to access and use, and in many cases, also exchange experiences and opinions. A particular class of online services that take advantage of the collected knowledge and experience of users are collaborative filtering ones. The successful operation of such services in the context of real-life applications requires careful testing and parameterization before their actual deployment. In this paper, the case of developing a learning resources' collaborative filtering service for an online community of teachers in Europe was examined. More specifically, a data set of evaluations of learning resources was collected from the teachers that use the European Schoolnet's learning resource portal. These evaluations were then used to support the experimental investigation of design choices for an online collaborative filtering service for the portal's learning resources. A candidate multi-attribute utility collaborative filtering algorithm was appropriately parameterized and tested for this purpose. Results indicated that the development of such systems should be taking place considering the particularities of the actual communities that are to be served.

Manouselis, N., Vuorikari, R. and Van Assche, F. (2010), Collaborative recommendation of e-learning resources: an experimental investigation. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 227–242. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00362.x
Keywords:

    * collaborative learning;
    * knowledge convergence;
    * knowledge sharing;
    * uptake analysis

Abstract

This paper explores the process of knowledge convergence and knowledge sharing in the context of classroom collaboration in which students do a group learning activity mediated by a generic representation tool. In analysing the transcript of the interactions of a group, we adapt the group cognition method of Stahl and the uptake analysis methodology of Suthers to understand how the members of the group did meaning making in their interactions, and how individual members did uptakes of their interactions and applied their new shared knowledge or understanding in new situations. The transcript is taken from our school-based research using the Group Scribbles software technology which provides representation spaces for individual, group or class work to support collaborative practices. Our work contributes toward a methodology for explaining a process-oriented account of a small group interaction through face-to-face communication over external shared representations.

Looi, C.-K. and Chen, W. (2010), Community-based individual knowledge construction in the classroom: a process-oriented account. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 202–213. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00349.x
Keywords:

    * conceptual understanding;
    * electric circuits;
    * Real Experimentation;
    * simulations;
    * Virtual Experimentation

Abstract  The purpose of this study was to investigate value of combining Real Experimentation (RE) with Virtual Experimentation (VE) with respect to changes in students' conceptual understanding of electric circuits. To achieve this, a pre–post comparison study design was used that involved 88 undergraduate students. The participants were randomly assigned to an experimental (45 students) and a control group (43 students). Each group attended a one semester course in physics for preservice elementary school teachers. Both groups used the same inquiry-based curriculum materials. Participants in the control group used RE to conduct the study's experiments, whereas, participants in the experimental group used RE in the first part of the curriculum and VE in another part. Conceptual tests were administered to assess students' understanding of electric circuits before, during and after the teaching intervention. Results indicated that the combination of RE and VE enhanced students' conceptual understanding more than the use of RE alone. A further analysis showed that differences between groups on that part of the curriculum in which the experimental group used VE and the control group RE, in favour of VE.

Zacharia, Z. (2007), Comparing and combining real and virtual experimentation: an effort to enhance students' conceptual understanding of electric circuits. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 120–132. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00215.x
Keywords:

    * collaborative learning;
    * computer literacy;
    * digital divide;
    * web-based;
    * inquiry learning;
    * knowledge gap hypothesis;
    * patterns of media use

Abstract  A low level of computer literacy has often been hypothesized as constituting a disadvantage in knowledge acquisition. However, within the field of computer-supported inquiry learning systematic investigations of these purported relations have not been conducted. This classroom study investigates the role of computer literacy (procedural computer-related knowledge, self-confidence in using the computer, and familiarity with computers) as a learning prerequisite for knowledge acquisition, and analyses the learners' patterns of media use as processes that might explain this role. Thirty-seven students from two final classes of a secondary school worked in pairs on the project ‘How far does light go?’ in the Web-based Inquiry Science Environment. Findings did indicate significant relations of neither procedural computer-related knowledge nor self-confidence in using the computer to knowledge acquisition. However, students with greater familiarity with computers acquired significantly less knowledge. In the light of the patterns of media use, these findings might be explained by different navigation styles adopted by students with high and low familiarity with computers: students with high familiarity with computers exhibit more shallow processing strategies (‘browsing’) which are less functional for learning.

Wecker, C., Kohnle, C. and Fischer, F. (2007), Computer literacy and inquiry learning: when geeks learn less. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 133–144. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00218.x
Keywords:

    * assessment tool;
    * deep learning;
    * peer assessment;
    * programming language;
    * technology assessment;
    * web-based education

Abstract Active learning is considered by many academics as an important and effective learning strategy. Assessment is integrated in learning as a tool for learning, but traditional assessment methods often encourage surface learning (passive learning) rather than deep learning (active learning). Peer assessment is a method of motivating students, involving students discussing, marking and providing feedback on other students' work, and is one of the successful approaches which can be used to enhance deep learning. Students are required to think critically about what they are learning during the peer assessment process. Tutors' marking is usually accepted as reliable, but student peers' marking in a peer assessment process is suspect. As part of a study investigating whether peer assessment can be an accurate assessment method in a computer programming course, a novel web-based peer assessment tool has been developed. In this paper, we describe the tool and report the results of evaluating the tool through experiments involving large programming classes. The results suggest that computer-mediated peer assessment is a valuable assessment approach which promotes active learning and is an accurate assessment method in a programming course.

Sitthiworachart, J. and Joy, M. (2008), Computer support of effective peer assessment in an undergraduate programming class. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 217–231. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00255.x
Keywords:

    * academic standards;
    * computer-assisted teaching and assessment;
    * disability adjustments;
    * disability rights;
    * disabled students;
    * higher education

Abstract  Computer-assisted teaching and assessment has become a regular feature across many areas of the curriculum in higher education courses around the world in recent years. This development has resulted in the ‘digital divide’ between disabled students and their nondisabled peers regarding their participation in computer-assisted courses. However, there has been a long-standing practice to ensure that disabled students could participate in these courses with a set of disability adjustments that are in line with their learning modalities under the headings of presentation format, response format, timing, and setting adjustments. Additionally, there has been a set of supporting antidiscriminatory disability laws around the world to avoid such divide between disabled students and their nondisabled peers. However, following a successful pre cedent in Davis v. Southeastern Community College (1979), the opponents of disability rights have consistently argued that making disability adjustments for disabled students to participate in computer-assisted courses would undermine academic and professional standards and these laws have resulted in a ‘culture of fear’ among the staff. This paper challenges such myths and argues, based on a systematic review of four major antidiscriminatory laws, that universities have full academic freedom to set the academic standards of their computer-assisted courses despite the introduction of such laws and that there has been no grounds for the perceived culture of fear about the consequences of the participation of disabled students in computer-assisted courses.

Konur, O. (2007), Computer-assisted teaching and assessment of disabled students in higher education: the interface between academic standards and disability rights. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 207–219. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00208.x
Keywords:

    * computer-mediated communication;
    * problem-based learning;
    * synchronous communication

Abstract  There has been an increasing interest in the use of computer-mediated communication (CMC) in problem-based learning. One line of research has been to introduce synchronous, or simultaneous, communication attempting to create text-based digital real-time interaction. Compared with face-to-face (F2F) communication, CMC may be a poorer medium regarding coordination of the activity. Still, we are in need for more knowledge on the possible advantages and problems regarding such digital communication processes. In the present study, we compared activities in digital and F2F problem-based learning (PBL) regarding the content of the communication, turn-taking processes and the emergence of learning issues. The results indicate that when students discussed in the digital learning environment, they focused more on technical and organizational questions, produced relatively more initiatives but less responses, and produced less elaborated and specified learning issues than when they participated in F2F meetings.

Strømsø, H., Grøttum, P. and Lycke, K. (2007), Content and processes in problem-based learning: a comparison of computer-mediated and face-to-face communication. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 271–282. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00221.x
Keywords:

    * change;
    * conditions;
    * ICT;
    * learning;
    * newly qualified teachers;
    * tools

Abstract  The overarching aim of this study is to investigate how newly qualified Rwandan teachers can contribute to the creation of theoretical and practical knowledge for professional development with information and communication technology (ICT). Questionnaires, focus groups and interviews were used for data collection. The findings show that novice teachers are motivated to acquire ICT and that they succeed in situations where school administrators grant easy access to computers. The novice teachers expressed a strong desire to be trusted and be allowed time to use computers and related skills in their learning and teaching. These views are discussed in terms of learning conditions created in schools so that participants become active, responsible and committed practitioners. We assume that such attitudes can be a model for their future roles in fostering change in social practice. For example, this study shows that gender equity becomes an aspect of change in an ICT-learning environment, which creates new opportunities for continuous education. To achieve this, as revealed by the findings, there is a need to develop school-based curricula, appropriate pedagogy and teacher professional development in the area of ICT literacy, which allows the teachers to develop a critical mind to the new tools.

Mukama, E. and Andersson, S. (2008), Coping with change in ICT-based learning environments: newly qualified Rwandan teachers' reflections. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 156–166. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00249.x
Keywords:

    * critical success factors;
    * e-learning course delivery;
    * e-learning course co-ordination;
    * e-tutoring;
    * higher education;
    * online learning

Abstract  The successful adoption of information and communication technology to enhance learning can be very challenging, requiring a complex blend of technological, pedagogical and organizational components, which may at times require the resolution of contradictory demands and conflicting needs. The research reported in this paper investigated and analysed critical success factors (CSFs) that are required to deliver e-learning within higher education (HE) courses and programmes. The research design adopted a critical research approach, instantiated by focus group discussions with e-learning experts drawn from administrative, educational, technology and research domains. The findings revealed that staffing issues, pedagogically sound delivery models and training of both tutors and students cannot be treated as trivial issues and are critical to the success of e-learning. Furthermore, this research also shows that there is a strong relationship between these factors and inspirational institutional leadership. The findings also suggest that in order to assure the success of e-learning, this leadership should guarantee the presence of institutional enablers. It is hoped that the CSFs, described and discussed in depth in this paper, will provide a suitable theoretical foundation to underpin the successful delivery of e-learning within HE.

McPherson, M. and Nunes, J. (2008), Critical issues for e-learning delivery: what may seem obvious is not always put into practice. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 433–445. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00281.x
Keywords:

    * efficacy beliefs;
    * labelling;
    * peer tutoring;
    * scripting;
    * tutor training

Abstract

Cross-age tutors were randomly assigned to one of the three tutor training conditions distinguished for the current study: (1) the labelling experimental condition, characterized by requirements to label their tutor interventions, based on the e-moderating model of Salmon; (2) the non-labelling experimental condition, focusing on tutor's acting upon the role of an e-moderator without preliminary requirements with regard to labelling the phase of e-moderating in their messages; and (3) a control condition, typified by all-round information on online facilitation. The results indicated that tutors are not really capable in labelling their interventions accurately. Nevertheless, labelling did foster enhanced e-moderating activities. Compared to tutors in the control condition, tutors in the experimental conditions performed at a higher level, implying that they adopted more balanced tutor support. Labelling did not result in a differential impact on self-efficacy and perceived collective efficacy.

De Smet, M., Van Keer, H. and Valcke, M. (2008), Cross-age peer tutors in asynchronous discussion groups: studying the impact of tutors labelling their interventions. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 462–473. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00284.x
Keywords:

    * collaborative learning;
    * computer-mediated communication;
    * cross-cultural projects;
    * virtual training teaming

Abstract

Virtual teamwork is a growing mode of operation within organizations through the increasing sophistication and accessibility of computer-mediated communication. The purpose of this paper was to develop a new conceptual framework and propositions to assist understanding of a new training phenomenon. The approach used was the integration of related, but distinct, literatures and development of arguments for the important role of cultural factors in virtual training teaming. We argue that delivery of training through teamwork in virtual spaces is potentially effective, and individualist and collectivist orientations of team members are likely to be critical for the effectiveness, or otherwise, of such programs.

Ahanchian, M. and McCormick, J. (2009), Culture and the processes of virtual teaming for training. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 386–396. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00314.x
Keywords:

    * cell-phone;
    * critique;
    * ‘digital native’;
    * discourse

Abstract

This paper interrogates the currently pervasive discourse of the ‘net generation’ finding the concept of the ‘digital native’ especially problematic, both empirically and conceptually. We draw on a research project of South African higher education students' access to and use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) to show that age is not a determining factor in students' digital lives; rather, their familiarity and experience using ICTs is more relevant. We also demonstrate that the notion of a generation of ‘digital natives’ is inaccurate: those with such attributes are effectively a digital elite. Instead of a new net generation growing up to replace an older analogue generation, there is a deepening digital divide in South Africa characterized not by age but by access and opportunity; indeed, digital apartheid is alive and well. We suggest that the possibility for digital democracy does exist in the form of a mobile society which is not age specific, and which is ubiquitous. Finally, we propose redefining the concepts ‘digital’, ‘net’, ‘native’, and ‘generation’ in favour of reclaiming the term ‘digitizen’.

Brown, C. and Czerniewicz, L. (2010), Debunking the ‘digital native’: beyond digital apartheid, towards digital democracy. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 357–369. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00369.x
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[[GettingStarted]]
Jones, C. and Czerniewicz, L. (2010), Describing or debunking? The net generation and digital natives. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 317–320. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00379.x

Keywords:

    * design for learning;
    * inquiry-based learning;
    * LAMS;
    * Learning Activity Management System;
    * students as designers

Abstract

This paper explores the relationship between practitioners' pedagogical purposes, values and practices in designing for inquiry-based learning in higher education, and the affordances of the Learning Activity Management System (LAMS) as a tool for creating learning designs in this context. Using a qualitative research methodology, variation was identified in participants' conceptions of inquiry-based learning pedagogy and in their approaches to inquiry-based learning design. LAMS was found to offer design affordances that are compatible with more strongly teacher-led conceptions of, and approaches to, inquiry-based learning pedagogy. The paper draws some implications for the further development and use of design tools for inquiry-based learning. The authors suggest that, in addition to tools created for teachers, there may be a valuable role for tools that explicitly support students as designers of their own inquiry processes and activities.

Levy, P., Aiyegbayo, O. and Little, S. (2009), Designing for inquiry-based learning with the Learning Activity Management System. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 238–251. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00309.x
Keywords:

    * Agent;
    * affordance;
    * cognitive overload;
    * modality;
    * multiplicity;
    * persona effect;
    * sensory preference

Abstract

Animated pedagogical agents (APAs) are known to possess great potential in supporting learning because of their ability to simulate a real classroom learning environment. But research in this area has produced mixed results. The reason for this remains puzzling. This paper is written with two purposes: (1) to examine some recent research and organize the findings in terms of classroom characteristics, and (2) to discuss and reveal any uncovered issues pertaining to the findings and provide input whenever possible. A framework formed by using APA characteristics, APA presentation, and learners' characteristics is used to analyse past research findings. The findings from the analysis reveal that because APAs are regarded as social members similar to humans, they are more effective in engaging learners in environments that require social communication and interactions. They therefore produce more definitive results in terms of affective gain and group learning. But such conditions also impose greater demand on designers to create more complex learning environments that can provide interactions with several agents and yet maintain a mode of communication that is pedagogically effective. The challenges for creating such environment include using an agent's gestures to duplicate its speech in instruction, which is usually uncommon in human practice, overcoming the needs to use input–output interface for communication and taking into consideration the possible influence of the learners' characteristics such as their sensory preference. This paper suggests that APAs' application in instruction should be seen in the light of affordances and be designed within its own practical limits.

Woo, H. (2009), Designing multimedia learning environments using animated pedagogical agents: factors and issues. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 203–218. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00299.x
Keywords:

    * elementary and secondary schools;
    * large scale survey;
    * questionnaire;
    * scale construction;
    * teachers' ICT literacy

Abstract

There is no unified view about how teachers' integration of information and communication technology (ICT) should be measured. While many instruments have focused on the technological aspects, recent studies have suggested teachers' pedagogical considerations, professional development, and emerging ethical and safety issues should be included when assessing teachers' ICT literacy. Using the performance standards created by the International Society for Technology in Education, a group of Taiwanese teachers developed equivalent items. After consulting expert panels and interviewing teachers, a scale was constructed. Using this instrument, 3729 teachers from grades 1 through 9 in Taiwan were sampled. Half of the data was analysed by exploratory factor analysis to find the underpinning structure, and the second half was analysed by confirmatory factor analysis to verify the subscales. The results confirmed six subscales for teachers' ICT integration: (1) information collection and preparation; (2) material production and troubleshooting; (3) communication and sharing; (4) planning, teaching and evaluation; (5) professional development and self-study; and (6) ethical, health and safety issues. Using two teacher attributes, school levels and course or degree obtained, the scale was further verified for its feasibility. The established scale examines the existing concerns for technology, pedagogy and professional development at once with a new addition of ethical and safety issues, which demand growing attention in teachers of future generation.

Hsu, S. (2010), Developing a scale for teacher integration of information and communication technology in grades 1–9. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 175–189. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00348.x
Keywords:

    * auditory training;
    * hearing impairment aid tool;
    * speech hindrance;
    * voice frequency

Abstract  A computer-assisted music-learning system (CAMLS) has been developed to help the hearing impaired practice playing a musical melody. The music-learning performance is evaluated to test the usability of the system. This system can be a computer-supported learning tool for the hearing impaired to help them understand what pitch and tempo are, and then learn to play songs thereby increasing their interest in music classes and enhancing their learning performance. The results indicated that CAMLS could enhance hearing-impaired students' learning performance in a music course. A questionnaire survey also demonstrated that the computer-aided method did benefit hearing-impaired students in their music leaning. Actually, this system can also be applied to non-disabled students as a music-supportive tool to help their music learning.

Yang, H.-J., Lay, Y.-L., Liou, Y.-C., Tsao, W.-Y. and Lin, C.-K. (2007), Development and evaluation of computer-aided music-learning system for the hearing impaired. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 466–476. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00229.x
Keywords:

    * cross-platform development;
    * interactive television (iTV);
    * learner-centred design;
    * mobile phone;
    * ubiquitous language learning

Abstract  This paper describes the development processes for a cross-platform ubiquitous language learning service via interactive television (iTV) and mobile phone. Adapting a learner-centred design methodology, a number of requirements were gathered from multiple sources that were subsequently used in TAMALLE (television and mobile phone assisted language learning environment) development. A number of issues that arise in the context of cross-platform user interface design and architecture for ubiquitous language learning were tackled. Finally, we discuss a multi-method evaluation regime to gauge usability, perceived usefulness and desirability of TAMALLE system. The result broadly revealed an overall positive response from language learners. Although, there were some reported difficulties in reading text and on-screen display mainly on the iTV side of the interface, TAMALLE was perceived to be a usable, useful and desirable tool to support informal language learning and also for gaining new contextual and cultural knowledge.

Fallahkhair, S., Pemberton, L. and Griffiths, R. (2007), Development of a cross-platform ubiquitous language learning service via mobile phone and interactive television. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 312–325. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00236.x
Keywords:

    * Computer assisted learning;
    * digital literacy;
    * learning;
    * learning and computers;
    * learning and technology;
    * literacy and technology;
    * technology and remembering

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to offer some reflections on the relationships between digital technologies and learning. It is argued that activities of learning, as they have been practised within institutionalized schooling, are coming under increasing pressure from the developments of digital technologies and the capacities to store, access and manipulate information that such resources offer. Thus, the technologies do not merely support learning; they transform how we learn and how we come to interpret learning. The metaphors of learning currently emerging as relevant in the new media ecology emphasize the transformational and performative nature of such activities, and of knowing in general. These developments make the hybrid nature of human knowing and learning obvious; what we know and master is, to an increasing extent, a function of the mediating tools we are familiar with. At a theoretical and practical level, this implies that the interdependences between human agency, minds, bodies and technologies have to serve as foundations when attempting to understand and improve learning. Attempts to account for what people know without integrating their mastery of increasingly sophisticated technologies into the picture will lack ecological validity.


Säljö, R. (2010), Digital tools and challenges to institutional traditions of learning: technologies, social memory and the performative nature of learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 53–64. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00341.x
Keywords:

    * computer-mediated communication;
    * cooperative/collaborative learning;
    * evaluation methodologies;
    * teaching/learning strategies

Abstract  The aim of this study was to investigate the nature of tutor and student online communication and collaboration activities in a blended learning course. The hypothesis that these activities are related to student learning performance (exam results) was tested based on the number of messages posted, as well as the nature of these messages (type of content transmitted in terms of course content-related, interpersonal and organizational activities). Descriptive results show that tutors were mainly involved in organizational tasks, whereas students communicated mostly at content-related and interpersonal levels. Student performance was not related to the quantity of tutors' activity, but to the quantity of students' activity. Closer examination of the nature of different activities showed that not only tutors' interpersonal, but also students' own content-related and interpersonal messages had an impact on students' learning performance. This study raises the possibility that the nature of messages is more important than their quantity. It calls into question former research, which has indicated the importance of the amount of activity while mostly neglecting to discriminate between the differences in nature of activities and which has based its findings almost entirely on subjective ratings for both activities and performance. Implications for evaluation of activities and design of personal support are discussed.

Gerber, M., Grund, S. and Grote, G. (2008), Distributed collaboration activities in a blended learning scenario and the effects on learning performance. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 232–244. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00256.x
Keywords:

    * groupware;
    * handheld device;
    * one-to-one learning;
    * shared display;
    * small group collaborative learning

Abstract  One-to-one computing environments change and improve classroom dynamics as individual students can bring handheld devices fitted with wireless communication capabilities into the classrooms. However, the screens of handheld devices, being designed for individual-user mobile application, limit promotion of interaction among groups of learners. This study proposes a design of classrooms that incorporates personal workspace and public workspace. Students use handheld devices as private workspace and work with peers on public workspace with shared displays through their handheld devices. Experiments confirmed that students with only handheld devices did not demonstrate expected participation ratios and actively interact with group members. The proposed shared display groupware promoted shared understanding of the workspace and increased awareness of partner actions. Collaboration was enhanced by creating the opportunity for students to use handheld devices to perform ideal communication patterns and avoiding ineffective communication patterns.

Liu, C.-C. and Kao, L.-C. (2007), Do handheld devices facilitate face-to-face collaboration? Handheld devices with large shared display groupware to facilitate group interactions. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 285–299. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00234.x
Keywords:

    * anxiety;
    * digital divide;
    * gender gap;
    * ICT;
    * motivation;
    * social support

Abstract  The literature seems to suggest that women may be at risk from being excluded from adult education programmes, which use e-learning, especially when they have low economic status. Based on a survey of 551 women, family day care providers, we conclude that there is a persistent divide in PC access and use, as well as in perceived PC skills according to age. Yet, this divide seems to run less along traditional lines, suggesting that personal factors play a more important role. Motivation and anxiety are two related but distinct personal factors that influence computer use and skills in this population. We also found that these factors are mediated by the family context: motivation is higher when (young) children are present in the family. Moreover, children may represent an important form of social support for women not yet using computers. This study concludes that the concerns about the gender gap in computer use may benefit from taking the scaffolding possibilities of the family into consideration and that there may be a case for growing optimism in the use of information and communication technology for adult learning in specific, gender-segregated professions with low status.

Vandenbroeck, M., Verschelden, G. and Boonaert, T. (2008), E-learning in a low-status female profession: the role of motivation, anxiety and social support in the learning divide. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 181–190. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00252.x
Keywords:

    * Web 2.0;
    * e-safety;
    * social network;
    * education policy

Abstract  This paper reports findings from a survey and interviews with children aged 11–16 years, teachers and parents on their attitudes to e-safety in relation to social networking and media creation (Web 2.0) and their practices at school and at home. The results showed that 74% of the children surveyed have used social network (SN) sites and that a substantial minority regularly interact socially online with people they have not met face-to-face. Online interaction forms a different, although overlapping, social space to that of face-to-face friendships. Despite a desire from some teachers to explore the benefits of Web 2.0 for creative and social learning, they report being constrained by a need to show a duty of care that avoids worst-case risk to children, to restrict access to SN sites. The respondents also report more direct concerns about Internet bullying and exam cheating. We also report a Policy Delphi process with a panel of 30 people with expertise in Web 2.0 and e-safety. The panel reached a general consensus that schools should move towards allowing access to Web 2.0 sites, with children being educated in responsible and creative learning.

Sharples, M., Graber, R., Harrison, C. and Logan, K. (2009), E-safety and Web 2.0 for children aged 11–16. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 70–84. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00304.x
Keywords:

    * elementary students;
    * English education;
    * instructional effectiveness;
    * language learning;
    * massive multiplayer online role-playing game;
    * online game

Abstract

This study investigated the effectiveness of massive multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG)-based (massive multiplayer online role-playing game) instruction in elementary English education. The effectiveness of the MMORPG program was compared with face-to-face instruction and the independent variables (gender, prior knowledge, motivation for learning, self-directed learning skills, computer skills, game skills, computer capacity, network speed, and computer accessibility) were examined to see how accurately achievement was predicted in MMORPG instruction. The results indicated that students studying English utilizing online role-playing games showed higher scores in areas of listening, reading, and writing than those who attended face-to-face instruction classes. It was also found that prior knowledge, motivation for learning, and network speed were factors affecting achievement in English learning. These findings suggest that MMORPGs can play an important role in improving English communicative skills.

Suh, S., Kim, S. and Kim, N. (2010), Effectiveness of MMORPG-based instruction in elementary English education in Korea. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 370–378. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00353.x
Keywords:

    * m-learning;
    * mobile phones;
    * SMS messaging;
    * vocabulary learning

Abstract

Whereas the penetration of mobile phones in Asian countries keeps climbing, little research has explored the application of the short message service (SMS) in second language learning. This study aims to examine the effectiveness of SMS vocabulary lessons of limited lexical information on the small screens of mobile phones. Thirty high school students were randomly distributed into two groups and given two sets of English words either on paper or through SMS messages during two weeks. Students recognized more vocabulary during the post-test after reading the regular and brief SMS lessons than they did after reading the relatively more detailed print material. Qualitative data from interviews offer information about the learning process as well as the benefits and limitations of m-learning. Results of the questionnaires show that students in general hold positive attitudes towards learning vocabulary via mobile phone. On the other hand, technological limitations, unfamiliar presentations and learning activities may prevent students from reading SMS lessons.

Lu, M. (2008), Effectiveness of vocabulary learning via mobile phone. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 515–525. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00289.x
Keywords:

    * analogical reasoning;
    * multimedia;
    * schema;
    * science learning

Abstract

The present study investigates the effects of multimedia and schema induced analogical reasoning on science learning. It involves 89 fourth grade elementary students in the north-east of the United States. Participants are randomly assigned into four conditions: (a) multimedia with analogy; (b) multimedia without analogy; (c) analogy without multimedia; and (d) non-multimedia and non-analogy. The multivariate analyses of covariance reveal significant main effects for multimedia and analogy learning as well as a significant interaction between multimedia and analogy. The findings show that schema induced analogical reasoning can significantly improve science learning and that multimedia becomes more effective when it is integrated with an instructional method such as analogy and less so when it is used only as a visual tool. The study also shows the field dependence/independence as a significant covariate that influences learners' schema induced analogical reasoning in learning. Discussions pertaining to the significance of the findings and their implications for teaching and learning are made. Suggestions for future research are included with an emphasis on developing multimedia supported analogical reasoning for science learning.

Zheng, R., Yang, W., Garcia, D. and McCadden, E. (2008), Effects of multimedia and schema induced analogical reasoning on science learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 474–482. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00282.x
Keywords:

    * electronic storybook;
    * emergent literacy;
    * kindergarteners;
    * SES

Abstract  We compared the effects of children's reading of an educational electronic storybook on their emergent literacy with those of being read the same story in its printed version by an adult. We investigated 128 5- to 6-year-old kindergarteners; 64 children from each of two socio-economic status (SES) groups: low (LSES) and middle (MSES). In each group, children were randomly assigned to one of three subgroups. The two intervention groups included three book reading sessions each; children in one group individually read the electronic book; in the second group, the children were read the same printed book by an adult; children in the third group, which served as a control, received the regular kindergarten programme. Pre- and post-intervention emergent literacy measures included vocabulary, word recognition and phonological awareness. Compared with the control group, the children's vocabulary scores in both intervention groups improved following reading activity. Children from both interventions groups and both SES groups showed a similarly good level of story comprehension. In both SES groups, compared with the control group, children's phonological awareness and word recognition did not improve following both reading interventions. Implications for future research and for education are discussed.

Korat, O. and Shamir, A. (2007), Electronic books versus adult readers: effects on children's emergent literacy as a function of social class. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 248–259. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00213.x
Keywords:

    * argumentation;
    * asynchronous;
    * critical thinking;
    * dialogue;
    * exploratory talk;
    * Internet and education

Abstract  Computer-supported collaborative argumentation can improve understanding and problem-solving skills. This study uses WebCT to explore the improvement of argumentation in asynchronous, web-based discussions through goal instructions, which are statements at the end of a discussion prompt indicating what students should achieve. In a previous study (Nussbaum 2005), the goal instruction ‘generate as many reasons as possible’ resulted in more balanced argumentation in an online environment. This study attempts to replicate this finding. It also examines the role of prior attitudes, knowledge and interest, and also the effect of elaborating on possible lines of reasoning in the question prompt. The goal instruction to generate as many reasons as possible (goal/no goal) was crossed with question elaboration (elaborated/unelaborated question) in a 2 × 2 randomized design using 131 undergraduates. Half of the participants were randomly assigned to complete the attitude survey before discussion. Results indicated that, when prior knowledge was controlled, the reason goal instruction positively affected argument development and opposing view exploration, but only for high-issue knowledge students. The sheer volume of notes created by the online environment may have caused cognitive overload for low-issue knowledge students. Question elaboration promoted balanced argumentation for all students, but especially those with low knowledge.

Golanics, J. and Nussbaum, E. (2008), Enhancing online collaborative argumentation through question elaboration and goal instructions. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 167–180. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00251.x
Keywords:

    * instructional strategy;
    * language learning;
    * self-monitoring;
    * self-regulation;
    * web-based instruction

Abstract  The present study investigated the effects of a self-monitoring strategy on web-based language learning. Both students' academic performance and their motivational beliefs were investigated. The interaction between the use of a self-monitoring strategy and the level of learners' English proficiency was also examined. A total of 99 college students who were enrolled in classes for Freshmen English participated in this study. The experimental group was led to a web page with self-monitoring form for recording study time and environment, learning process, predicting test scores, and self-evaluation while the control group was not. It was found that (1) the self-monitoring strategy had a significant main effect on students' academic performance and their motivational beliefs; students who applied the self-monitoring strategy outperformed students who did not apply the self-monitoring strategy on both academic performance and motivational beliefs regardless of their English proficiency level; and (2) the influence of self-monitoring was greater on the lower English level students than on the higher English level students. The positive findings suggest that encouraging students to develop self-monitoring could help increase the success of online learning. Thus, applying a self-monitoring strategy is strongly recommended for web-based instruction.

Chang, M.-M. (2007), Enhancing web-based language learning through self-monitoring. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 187–196. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00203.x
Keywords:

    * collaborative learning;
    * practice-based teacher education;
    * shared displays

Abstract  Practice-based education is gaining a growing popularity in fields as diverse as, for example, software engineering, pedagogy and medical studies. In practice-based education learning takes place across different learning arenas and requires cooperation among all the actors involved in the learning process. However, mobility of students across these arenas impact deeply on cooperation patterns, and therefore on the learning process. In this paper we investigate the usage of shared display systems to promote cooperation among students in practice-based education. Our focus is on teacher education and the paper is based on our experiences with the teacher education programme at our university. Based on our observations of students out in practice, we discuss the importance of common spaces and the role of bulletin boards of different types. We then define high-level requirements for a shared display system to support practice-based education and we illustrate the main concepts with a demonstrator. Strengths and weaknesses of our approach are pointed out through an evaluation of the demonstrator.

Morken, E., Divitini, M. and Haugaløkken, O. (2007), Enriching spaces in practice-based education to support collaboration while mobile: the case of teacher education. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 300–311. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00235.x
Keywords:

    * affordance;
    * epistemology;
    * knowledge;
    * meaning;
    * perception

Abstract  The issues raised by the design and development of technologies to enhance learning has led to a demand for an appropriate language and form of conceptualization. However, we are insufficiently familiar with the way in which different types of mediated tool use occur, to develop the theoretical models needed for the development of this language and form of conceptualization. In its absence a somewhat eclectic variety of concepts and research, such as the concept of affordance, are recruited in accounts of learning with new technologies. In looking briefly at the relevant area in philosophy this paper will consider whether or not the use of concepts such as affordance give adequate weight to social practice, meaning and knowledge in the design of educational technology. A fruitful source for work in this field which has not been sufficiently exploited is philosophy, particularly recent work in epistemology.

Derry, J. (2007), Epistemology and conceptual resources for the development of learning technologies. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 503–510. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00246.x
Keywords:

    * distance learning;
    * experiential learning;
    * learning support;
    * teacher professional development;
    * technology competence

Abstract

This paper describes and assesses the development of an online solution for the experiential support of distance learning by teachers. Three hundred and forty-eight randomly selected K-12 teachers participated in this pilot study using the online learning environment designed in this research. Teachers' products, surveys, and interviews were collected and analysed. Results showed that the teacher-learners could learn as well as in face-to-face learning in an earlier implementation of the course. The learning support system as designed fits teacher-learners' needs. They benefited from learning communities formed online as well as face-to-face. More support for online discussion and example cases are needed to support experiential learning. Suggestions are made to improve the design of the learning support system and the pedagogy for experiential teacher learning.

Gu, X., Zhang, B., Lin, X. and Song, X. (2009), Evaluating online solutions for experiential support of distance learning by teachers in China. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 114–125. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00291.x
Keywords:

    * learner satisfaction;
    * learning environment;
    * online learning

Abstract

Learner satisfaction has been shown to be positively correlated with quality of learning outcomes. An understanding of the factors that influence student satisfaction with online learning in a particular context can be used as an input to the appropriate design of learning environments, and for the provision of targeted support to students, with an aim to positively influence the student online learning experience. Following the mandatory inclusion of at least one wholly online unit of study in all undergraduate programs at Deakin University, a large ‘experiences of learning online’ (ELO) survey was undertaken to gauge students’ perceptions of studying in the wholly online mode. A multivariate linear regression of all the questionnaire items was performed against an overall satisfaction item. Five items were found to significantly contribute to a model that explained approximately 70% of reported student satisfaction. Factors that were found to positively influence student satisfaction with studying a wholly online unit primarily related to how confident they felt about their ability to communicate and learn online, having a clear understanding of what was required to succeed in the unit and how well they thought they were performing in the unit. Other results are also reported.

Palmer, S. and Holt, D. (2009), Examining student satisfaction with wholly online learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 101–113. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00294.x
Keywords:

    * argumentation;
    * functional linguistics;
    * language;
    * text-based conferencing

Abstract  The ability to argue is an important academic goal in secondary education. This paper reports on an exploratory study which investigated how asynchronous text-based conferencing provides a new site for school students to rehearse and develop their skills in argumentation. The study used linguistic tools of analysis to investigate two key questions:

    * • 
      How is argumentation structured in asynchronous text-based conferencing?
    * • 
      How do students use language to negotiate their position on an issue?

The originality of our study lies in the use of a functional linguistic method of analysis which provides unique insights into how students use language to argue, insights that can inform teaching and learning both in school history (the context for this paper) and more generally. Our interest in language is based on the premise that it is central to the learning process – a premise supported by work in socio-cultural psychology and systemic functional linguistics.

The most significant findings to emerge from the analysis were that (1) counter-argumentation was rare; and (2b) the more tentatively a claim is phrased the more likely it is that students will challenge or counter it.

Coffin, C., North, S. and Martin, D. (2009), Exchanging and countering points of view: a linguistic perspective on school students' use of electronic conferencing. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 85–98. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00280.x
Keywords:

    * collaborative learning;
    * computational model;
    * flexibility;
    * scripts

Abstract In the field of computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL), scripts are designed to support collaboration among distant learners or co-present learners whose interactions are (at least partially) mediated by a computer. The rationale of scripts is to structure collaborative learning processes in order to trigger group interactions that may be rare in free collaboration. Fixing the degree of coercion is a delicate design choice: too rigid scripts would spoil the richness of collaborative interactions; too flexible scripts would fail to induce the targeted interactions. Because of the unpredictability of how scripts will be enacted, both the teacher and the students must be allowed to modify some script features. In this article we propose a conceptual analysis of this notion of flexibility, arguing for a dissociation of constraints that are intrinsic to the pedagogical design of the script and constraints induced by the technology or contextual factors. This difference sets up the limits of flexibility both for the teacher and for the students and provides specification for the computational design. This analysis leads javascript:;to the conclusion that the operationalization of CSCL scripts should be addressed by implementing script engines handling multiple representations of the script: the script to be executed, the emergent organization of teams, the set of intrinsic and extrinsic constraints and the visual representation of the script for students and teachers.

Dillenbourg, P. and Tchounikine, P. (2007), . Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 1–13. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00191.x
Keywords:

    * conceptual change;
    * electricity;
    * experimental study;
    * inquiry learning;
    * laboratory;
    * computer simulation

Abstract  Computer simulations and laboratory activities have been traditionally treated as substitute or competing methods in science teaching. The aim of this experimental study was to investigate if it would be more beneficial to combine simulation and laboratory activities than to use them separately in teaching the concepts of simple electricity. Based on their pre-test performances, 66 elementary school students were placed into three different learning environments: computer simulation, laboratory exercise and a simulation–laboratory combination. The results showed that the simulation–laboratory combination environment led to statistically greater learning gains than the use of either simulation or laboratory activities alone, and it also promoted students’ conceptual understanding most efficiently. There were no statistical differences between simulation and laboratory environments. The results highlight the benefits of using simulation along with hands-on laboratory activities to promote students’ understanding of electricity. A simulation can help students to first understand the theoretical principles of electricity; however, in order to promote conceptual change, it is necessary to challenge further students’ intuitive conceptions by demonstrating through testing that the laws and principles that are discovered through a simulation also apply in reality.

Jaakkola, T. and Nurmi, S. (2008), Fostering elementary school students’ understanding of simple electricity by combining simulation and laboratory activities. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 271–283. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00259.x
Keywords:

    * communities of practice;
    * Cpsquare;
    * Etienne Wenger;
    * learner experiences;
    * online learning communities;
    * peripheral participation;
    * Web 2.0 technologies

Abstract

This research draws upon community of practice theory to explore the factors that enabled or hindered participation in an online ‘Foundations of Communities of Practice’ workshop – a course that is designed to align with Wenger's communities of practice perspective. The research used a mixed methods approach, drawing upon log-on and posting data, questionnaires and semi-structured interviews to explore participant experiences. The findings show that five dimensions either enabled or constrained participation. These were emotion, technology, connectivity, understanding norms and learning tensions. As enablers these dimensions led to successful participation within an online community of practice, but as constraints, they led to peripheral participation. The findings highlight implications for tutors of such courses. These include the need to (1) assess the technical expertise of participants, particularly when a number of different technological tools are used; (2) find ways to identify and evaluate emotional responses so learners can be supported in managing these; (3) ensure that participants understand the norms of a community; and (4) develop clear induction materials and processes.

Guldberg, K. and Mackness, J. (2009), Foundations of communities of practice: enablers and barriers to participation. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 528–538. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00327.x
Keywords:

    * case study;
    * ICT coordination;
    * ICT integration;
    * leadership;
    * school improvement

Abstract

This study utilizes a school-improvement perspective to examine the role of curriculum coordination in the integration of information and communication technologies (ICT) into primary schools. The nature and impact of this role is examined in seven primary schools in Australia. These seven schools were drawn from a longitudinal intervention that provided additional ICT-related resources and personnel to the schools. An instrument, referred to as the Learning Outcomes and Pedagogy Attributes (LOPA) measure, was developed and charted for the seven schools over the 4-year data collection period. The changes in LOPA score over time were then analysed in terms of the conditions at the school with regard to curriculum ICT coordination. The study concludes that the coordinator role and school leadership in general, play critical but varying roles in the complex process of ICT integration into schools. Success appeared to be associated with the support provided for the role, the extent to which the role was connected to school leadership, personal leadership characteristics of those in the role and the strategies employed within the role.

Tondeur, J., Cooper, M. and Newhouse, C. (2010), From ICT coordination to ICT integration: a longitudinal case study. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 296–306. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00351.x
Keywords:

    * conceptual change;
    * intelligent feedback;
    * learning of algebra;
    * Mathematics;
    * pedagogy and technology integration;
    * scaffolding

Abstract

In the Singapore primary school Mathematics curriculum, students are taught the model method that uses bar diagrams to visualize the problem structure in a given word problem. When these students progress to secondary school, they learn the algebraic way of solving word problems. Studies (e.g. Ng et al.) have shown that poor bridging of students from the use of bar diagrams to the use of letter-symbolic algebraic methods can hinder their learning of algebra. We design a software tool ‘AlgeBAR’ to scaffold the learning of the algebraic process, especially the formulation of equations to support a pedagogy that seeks to help students transit from bar diagrams to algebraic methods. In this paper, we report a cycle of evaluation of the intervention pedagogy by examining a class that uses the software tool as part of a holistic intervention package. This evaluation is in the context of an overall design research approach that sought to address complex problems in real classroom contexts in collaboration with practitioners and to integrate design principles with technological affordances to render plausible solutions. Our findings show that the software tool can be an important enabler of the bridging process.

Looi, C.-K. and Lim, K.-S. (2009), From bar diagrams to letter-symbolic algebra: a technology-enabled bridging. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 358–374. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00313.x
Keywords:

    * annotation systems;
    * artefacts;
    * context;
    * mobile learning;
    * paper-and-pen annotation paradigm

Abstract

Making annotations on books and learning materials is part of students' everyday life. Although there are many computer-based annotation systems, many people prefer to print digital documents and make annotations on physical paper. We introduce a classification scheme for computer-based annotation systems and provide an overview of different systems using this scheme. During our investigations, we identified several shortcomings in existing annotation systems: limitation to single document formats, no capturing of relations to reflect lateral reading, loss of context information an annotation was created in and limited sharing capabilities among collaborative users. To overcome these shortcomings, we introduce the concepts of Anchor Points, Artefacts and Spaces. Anchor Points define locations in arbitrary documents. Artefacts capture annotations on multiple Anchor Points in several documents, allowing students to map their current working context that typically contains several open documents and a relationship between them. Spaces are repositories for the learning materials and annotations that are automatically replicated among collaborative mobile users.

Hoff, C., Wehling, U. and Rothkugel, S. (2009), From paper-and-pen annotations to artefact-based mobile learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 219–237. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00297.x
Keywords:

    * assessment;
    * children;
    * computer;
    * education;
    * gender

Abstract Research has demonstrated girls to outperform boys on conventional literacy tests. The present studies concern gender differences on computerised educational tests. Seventy-one children were tested using LASS Secondary and a set of seven conventional measures. No significant gender differences were found on any of the LASS Secondary modules, although females did outperform males on a conventional spelling test. A further 126 pupils were tested on computerised and paper versions of the LASS Secondary reading, spelling and reasoning modules. No gender differences were found on the computerised versions, but there were significant differences on the paper versions of the reading and spelling modules favouring females. In a third study, 45 children were administered computerised and paper versions of the LASS Junior reading and spelling modules. There were no significant differences on the computerised modules, but girls performed significantly higher than boys on the paper version of the spelling module. It is possible that computerised assessment does not detect the established gender effect due to differences between males and females in motivation, computer experience and competitiveness. Further large-scale studies are necessary to confirm these findings.

Horne, J. (2007), Gender differences in computerised and conventional educational tests. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 47–55. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00198.x
Keywords:

    * computer-mediated communication;
    * cooperative/collaborative learning;
    * gender studies;
    * improving classroom teaching

Abstract  A question associated with the introduction of computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) is whether all participants profit equally from working in CSCL environments. This article reports on a review study into gender-related differences in participation in CSCL. As many of the processes in CSCL are similar to those in computer-mediated communication (CMC), studies into CMC are also included in the review. Male dominance is found to play a role in many CMC settings. A learning culture with an explicit focus on participation by all students seems to be related to a more gender-balanced participation in CMC, however. A tendency for boys to be more active participants than girls is also present in CSCL environments, but it is less pronounced than in CMC. This may be explained by the fact that participation is explicitly promoted in most CSCL environments. Gender differences in the character of students' contributions are found in both CMC and CSCL. It is concluded that in order to avoid gender-stereotyped participation and communication patterns, it is necessary to explicitly address inclusiveness as an aspect of a collaborative classroom culture. A plea is made for further research into differential participation by students in CSCL, and the effects thereof on cognitive and affective learning outcomes. Research should also focus on the question how classroom cultures can be promoted that support active participation of all students aimed at collaborative knowledge construction.

Prinsen, F., Volman, M. and Terwel, J. (2007), Gender-related differences in computer-mediated communication and computer-supported collaborative learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 393–409. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00224.x
Keywords:

    * assessment;
    * information literacy;
    * online learning;
    * pedagogy;
    * social context;
    * Web-based resources

Abstract  Undergraduate students access the Internet for a range of purposes, many unrelated to their studies. Increasingly, learners are using the Internet to find information and resources for coursework, whether or not this is promoted or endorsed by their teachers. This article reports an interview study that investigated why and how independent learners use Web-based resources, exploring not only the academic context of the courses studied, but also any relevant personal, domestic and employment-related circumstances. Factors were identified, which enhanced or competed with study activities, acting as incentives or disincentives for learners. The findings suggest that it is not technologies per se, but a combination of various contextual factors, that determine students' use of Web resources for learning. Of the academic factors that emerged from the interviews, assessment requirements and pedagogic approach were particularly important.

Kirkwood, A. (2008), Getting it from the Web: why and how online resources are used by independent undergraduate learners. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 372–382. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00265.x
Keywords:

    * children;
    * interaction;
    * learning;
    * pre-school;
    * technology

Abstract The aim of this study was to explore how guided interaction could create opportunities for learning with information and communication technologies (ICT) for children aged three and four. The study was grounded in the naturalistic environment of the playroom, in a context of free play and child-initiated activity, and focused on interventions selected and implemented by practitioners. Guided interaction describes the ways in which children's interactions with computers and other forms of ICT can be actively supported in pre-school settings. The paper presents a framework that illustrates proximal and distal guided interaction and the modes by which they are enacted. The concept of guided interaction (i) provides a tool for thinking about the different modes by which learning can be supported in pre-school settings and (ii) helps practitioners to articulate, reflect on and legitimise changes in pedagogy, enabling them to find new approaches to working with ICT. The paper provides an account of the analysis underpinning the development of the concept, followed by a description of its characteristics and the different types of learning that can be supported. An adapted version of this analytical framework has potential both as a research tool and to support changes in practice for professionals in other sectors of education.

Plowman, L. and Stephen, C. (2007), Guided interaction in pre-school settings. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 14–26. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00194.x
Keywords:

    * adaptive annotation;
    * adaptive navigation support;
    * E-Learning;
    * Java programming;
    * personalized guidance

Abstract

Rapid growth of the volume of interactive questions available to the students of modern E-Learning courses placed the problem of personalized guidance on the agenda of E-Learning researchers. Without proper guidance, students frequently select too simple or too complicated problems and ended either bored or discouraged. This paper explores a specific personalized guidance technology known as adaptive navigation support. We developed JavaGuide, a system, which guides students to appropriate questions in a Java programming course, and investigated the effect of personalized guidance a three-semester long classroom study. The results of this study confirm the educational and motivational effects of adaptive navigation support.

Hsiao, I.-H., Sosnovsky, S. and Brusilovsky, P. (2010), Guiding students to the right questions: adaptive navigation support in an E-Learning system for Java programming. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 270–283. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00365.x
Keywords:

    * Bloom's 2-sigma productivity problem;
    * digital classroom;
    * e-book;
    * learning-by-teaching;
    * one-to-one classroom;
    * personalization

Abstract

Our schools have been experiencing three overlapping waves of technology adoption since the mid-1980s: the personal computer lab wave, the online learning wave and the digital classroom wave. In this position paper, I tried to explain why we are now at the onset of the digital classroom wave, why it will cause great changes in education and why those changes could not occur prior to the digital classroom wave. By proposing a series of conjectures, I described with some confidence how classrooms in Taiwan may change. I also believed that some schools in other East Asian countries may experience similar changes. Basically, the classroom will undergo a transition from a pursuit of individualization and productivity in the first stage to the pursuit of personalization and global citizenship in the second stage. The linkage between the first stage and the second stage is also the linkage between the Internet world and the classroom world, which are now virtually separate. Technology adoption is determined by the availability of that technology, and we researchers in the field have little influence over it; however, we can build compelling, sustainable and ‘disseminable’ experimental digital classroom sites to set out classroom reform. To shed light on the development and dissemination of experimental sites, I drew parallels between Deng's economic reform of China and classroom reform. In the process of building digital classroom experimental sites, we are revealing fundamental problems, setting out fundamental changes and hailing the advent of a new era of formal education.

Chan, T.-W. (2010), How East Asian classrooms may change over the next 20 years. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 28–52. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00342.x
Keywords:

    * e-learning;
    * task–technology fit;
    * user satisfaction;
    * virtual learning environment;
    * WebCT

Abstract  Virtual learning environments (VLEs) are widespread in higher education today, typically used to deliver instructional materials and facilitate communication within a course. This study aimed to investigate the task–technology fit of VLEs for their two main groups of users: instructors and students, using the VLE WebCT. Task–technology fit, user satisfaction, attitude towards use and anticipated consequences of use were found to be significantly higher for students than for instructors. Instructors were found to have higher perceptions of social norms and higher perceptions of facilitating conditions than students. However, there was no difference between the instructors and students in level of utilization of the VLE. Students perceived that the VLE had higher impacts on their learning compared with instructors' perceptions regarding their teaching. These results suggest that despite high levels of support acknowledged by instructors, they may still be unsure about the contribution of VLEs to their teaching.

McGill, T. and Hobbs, V. (2008), How students and instructors using a virtual learning environment perceive the fit between technology and task. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 191–202. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00253.x
Keywords:

    * adaptive test;
    * computerised;
    * rasch;
    * reading;
    * remediation

Abstract This paper describes the development of an adaptive assessment called Interactive Computerised Assessment System (InCAS) that is aimed at children of a wide age and ability range to identify specific reading problems. Rasch measurement has been used to create the equal interval scales that form each part of the assessment. The rationale for the structure and content of InCAS is discussed and then different formats of feedback supplied to teachers are explained. This feedback is accompanied by research-based strategies for remediation, following the principle of ‘assessment for learning’, which promotes the provision of feedback on how to improve.

Merrell, C. and Tymms, P. (2007), Identifying reading problems with computer-adaptive assessments. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 27–35. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00196.x
Keywords:

    * collaboration;
    * constructivist;
    * informal learning;
    * mobile;
    * PDA;
    * smartphone;
    * web survey

Abstract  There has been increasing interest in informal learning in recent years alongside interest in how such learning can be supported by technology. However, relatively little is known about the extent to which adults make use of their own mobile devices to support informal learning. In this study, a survey was used to investigate whether, and to what extent, experienced users of mobile devices use their mobile devices to support intentional informal learning. If so, do they make use of mobile device connectivity to support opportunistic informal learning and does such connectivity support or encourage collaborative informal learning? Experienced mobile device users were recruited from web forums and business, and asked whether they used their devices to support informal learning. A pattern of learning uses emerged, some of which deployed the mobile device capabilities relatively unchanged, others triggered adaptations to typical learning activities to provide a better fit to the needs of the learner. These informal learning activities provided the basis for the design of a flexible mobile learning framework that can be extended to support developments in mobile technology, and increasing use of Web 2.0 technologies by informal learners.

Clough, G., Jones, A., McAndrew, P. and Scanlon, E. (2008), Informal learning with PDAs and smartphones. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 359–371. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00268.x
Keywords:

    * context awareness;
    * distributed intelligence;
    * human attention;
    * lifelong learning;
    * situated action;
    * wireless and mobile technologies

Abstract  Individual, unaided human abilities are constrained. Media have helped us to transcend boundaries in thinking, working, learning and collaborating by supporting distributed intelligence. Wireless and mobile technologies provide new opportunities for creating novel socio-technical environments and thereby empowering humans, but not without potential pitfalls. We explore these opportunities and pitfalls from a lifelong-learning perspective and discuss how wireless and mobile technologies can influence and change conceptual frameworks such as the relationship between planning and situated action, context awareness, human attention, distances in collaborative design activities, and the trade-off between tools for living and tools for learning. The impact of wireless and mobile technologies is illustrated with our research projects, which focus on moving ‘computing off the desktop’ by ‘going small, large, and everywhere’. Specific examples include human-centred public transportation systems, collaborative design, and information sharing with smart physical objects.

Fischer, G. and Konomi, S. (2007), Innovative socio-technical environments in support of distributed intelligence and lifelong learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 338–350. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00238.x
Keywords:

    * teacher change;
    * technology in the classroom;
    * technology integration

Abstract  In this paper, we devise a diagrammatic conceptualization to describe and represent the complex interplay of a teacher's knowledge (K), goals (G) and beliefs (B) in leveraging technology effectively in the classroom. The degree of coherency between the KGB region and the affordances of the technology serves as an indicator of the teachers' developmental progression through the initiation, implementation and maturation phases of using technology in the classroom. In our study, two teachers with differing knowledge, goals and beliefs are studied as they integrated GroupScribbles technology in their classroom lessons over a period of 1 year. Our findings reveal that the transition between the teacher's developmental states (as indicated by coherency diagrams) is nonlinear, and thus the importance of ensuring high coherency right at the initiation stage. Support for the teacher from other teachers and researchers remains an important factor in developing the teacher's competency to leverage the technology successfully. The stability of the KGB region further ensures smooth progression of the teacher's effective integration of technology in the classroom.

Chen, F.-H., Looi, C.-K. and Chen, W. (2009), Integrating technology in the classroom: a visual conceptualization of teachers' knowledge, goals and beliefs. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 470–488. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00323.x
Keywords:

    * Inquiry learning;
    * collaborative learning;
    * learning environments;
    * science education;
    * cognitive tools;
    * CSCL

Abstract

The process of collaborative inquiry learning requires maintaining a mutual understanding of the task, along with reaching consensus on strategies, plans and domain knowledge. In this study, we explore how different supportive measures affect students' consensus-building process, based on a re-analysis of data from four studies. We distinguish between scaffolds that aim at supporting students' collaborative processes and scaffolds that aim primarily at supporting the inquiry learning process. The overall picture that emerges from the re-analysis is that integration-oriented consensus-building activities are facilitated by scaffolds that provide explicit instruction in rules for effective collaboration and by scaffolds that encourage students to collaboratively construct a representation. Scaffolds that display inter-individual differences between students' opinions resulted primarily in quick consensus-building activities.

Gijlers, H., Saab, N., Van Joolingen, W., De Jong, T. and Van Hout-Wolters, B. (2009), Interaction between tool and talk: how instruction and tools support consensus building in collaborative inquiry-learning environments. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 252–267. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00302.x
Sharples, M. (2007), Introduction to Special Issue of JCAL on mobile learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 283–284. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00233.x
Van Joolingen, W., De Jong, T. and Dimitrakopoulou, A. (2007), Issues in computer supported inquiry learning in science. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 111–119. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00216.x

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Keywords:

    * adherence;
    * navigation support tool;
    * self-efficacy;
    * self-organized indirect social navigation;
    * usefulness

Abstract  This article investigates the usability of a navigation support tool, which guides learners by generating advice on the next best step to take in a self-study e-learning course. The article draws on log data and responses from online questionnaires to provide insights into learners' evaluation of the tool, their adherence to the advice and their expectations of self-efficacy. The theoretical underpinnings of the work are described together with the experimental set-up. Results show that more than half of the learners in the experimental group adhered to the advice and held the opinion that the advice stimulated them to proceed with the course. Learners expressed a need to know what the advice was based on which can be seen as an essential element in future development of the tool.

Bolman, C., Tattersall, C., Waterink, W., Janssen, J., Van Den Berg, B., Van Es, R. and Koper, R. (2007), Learners' evaluation of a navigation support tool in distance education. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 384–392. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00223.x
Keywords:

    * annotation and communication software;
    * eFuzion;
    * engineering students;
    * large classroom;
    * wireless device

Abstract The purpose of this study was to explore the potential of annotation and communication software (eFuzion) developed for the improvement of students' learning and to determine the effectiveness of the software. eFuzion is designed to be useful in a significantly large classroom by allowing instructors and teaching assistants to provide immediate responses to students' questions and to provide a broader array of options for the lucid presentation of complex concepts. To determine the effectiveness of the software, two groups that took the same course were compared in terms of their learning scores, one group having used the software, the other having not used it. In the three measures of learning, the students who used the software showed significantly higher learning scores than students who did not use it. In addition, students indicated that they felt closer to the instructor and that their understanding of the lecture material was increased by using the software. The results imply that the software has great potential for improving students' learning when it is appropriately used and free of technical difficulties.

Wentling, T. L., Park, J. and Peiper, C. (2007), Learning gains associated with annotation and communication software designed for large undergraduate classes. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 36–46. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00197.x
Keywords:

    * collaboration;
    * experiential learning;
    * face-to-face collaborative learning;
    * teamwork

Abstract

In today's fast-changing business environment, teams have emerged as a requirement for business success. However, in schools and universities, students are usually not taught teamwork skills. In this paper, we introduce learning to collaborate by collaborating, a process that enables collaboration and teamwork skills to be taught and measured through face-to-face collaborative work and class-wide activities supported by wirelessly connected hand-held devices. Following a description of learning to collaborate by collaborating, we present an experimental study whose results demonstrate that participants in the process displayed improved teamwork performance. We conclude that it is possible to effectively teach collaboration skills through the use of immediate feedback provided by a supporting technology.

Cortez, C., Nussbaum, M., Woywood, G. and Aravena, R. (2009), Learning to collaborate by collaborating: a face-to-face collaborative activity for measuring and learning basics about teamwork. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 126–142. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00298.x
Keywords:

    * computer-based learning environment;
    * self-explanation;
    * teacher training;
    * worked-out examples

Abstract  Learning from worked-out examples has been shown to be very effective in initial cognitive skill acquisition. In order to fully exploit the potential of example-based learning, teachers should, however, know how to effectively employ such examples in classroom instruction. Therefore, we have designed a computer-based learning environment in which mathematics and science teachers learn how to effectively employ worked-out examples. The learning environment was developed according to approved design criteria. The topics that are addressed in the learning environment were chosen in response to the results of a needs assessment that analysed schoolbooks and classroom videos, and took interviews with teachers into account. In experiments as well as in several teacher trainings on example-based learning, the computer-based learning environment was evaluated and improved accordingly. On a more general level, our research and development project showed that a computer-based learning programme could be a sensible tool that supports follow-up work in teacher training contexts.

Hilbert, T., Renkl, A., Schworm, S., Kessler, S. and Reiss, K. (2008), Learning to teach with worked-out examples: a computer-based learning environment for teachers. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 316–332. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00266.x
Keywords:

    * education;
    * research;
    * sociology;
    * technology;
    * social theory

Abstract

This paper makes a case for academic research and writing that looks beyond the learning potential of technology and, instead, seeks to develop social scientific accounts of the often compromised and constrained realities of education technology use ‘on the ground’. The paper discusses how this ‘critical’ approach differs from the ways that educational technology scholarship has tended to be pursued to date. These differences include viewing technology as being socially constructed and negotiated rather than imbued with pre-determined characteristics; developing objective and realistic accounts of technology use in situ; and producing ‘context rich’ analyses of the social conflicts and politics that underpin the use of technology in educational settings. The paper concludes by encouraging academic researchers and writers to show greater interest in the issues of democracy and social justice that surround educational technology.

Selwyn, N. (2010), Looking beyond learning: notes towards the critical study of educational technology. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 65–73. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00338.x
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[[使用說明|GettingStarted]]


版本:<<version>>
Keywords:

    * discussion and inquiry software;
    * epistemic categories;
    * interaction analysis;
    * progressive inquiry;
    * socio-cultural theory

Abstract  The topic of this article concerns how students make sense of categories of progressive inquiry made available to them through a discussion and inquiry type of software called Future Learning Environments 2 (FLE2). The idea behind tools of this kind is to induce approaches to school-work that build on the metaphor of learning as research. By pursuing a socio-cultural perspective on the topic of categories and categorization, we analyse in detail how students make sense of these categories, including how their sense-making relates to other concerns they have to manage when engaged in the institutional practices of studying. We demonstrate that students encounter significant challenges when engaged in the categorization work required by FLE2 and its underlying pedagogical model of progressive inquiry. Therefore, we conclude that to develop educational practices similar to the scientific practices on which such tools rely is more complex than merely following a step-by-step model of inquiry. To be able to evaluate truth claims and factuality involves the mastery of a whole range of historically developed skills and knowledge, and it is therefore not surprising that the students find it difficult to make adequate interpretations of what the categories entail, and how they should be used.

Arnseth, H. and Säljö, R. (2007), Making sense of epistemic categories. Analysing students' use of categories of progressive inquiry in computer mediated collaborative activities. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 425–439. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00225.x
Keywords:

    * interaction patterns with software;
    * mathematics achievement;
    * mathematics motivation;
    * secondary education

Abstract

The study was conducted to investigate the relation of adolescent students' mathematics motivation and achievement to their appropriate help-seeking and inappropriate guessing behaviour while using instructional software. High school students (n = 90) completed brief assessments of mathematics motivation and then worked with software for geometry instruction. Students' actions with the software were machine-classified to identify instances of appropriate help-seeking and inappropriate guessing. Mathematics teachers provided information about students' achievement (high, average or at risk of failing math class). Results indicated that students with low math self-concept were most likely to engage in inappropriate guessing behaviour. Students with low math achievement were most likely to engage in appropriate help-seeking while working with the software.

Beal, C., Qu, L. and Lee, H. (2008), Mathematics motivation and achievement as predictors of high school students' guessing and help-seeking with instructional software. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 507–514. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00288.x
Keywords:

    * digital educational games;
    * game-based learning;
    * micro-adaptivity;
    * non-invasive assessment;
    * personalization

Abstract

The idea of utilizing the rich potential of today's computer games for educational purposes excites educators, scientists and technicians. Despite the significant hype over digital game-based learning, the genre is currently at an early stage. One of the most significant challenges for research and development in this area is establishing intelligent mechanisms to support and guide the learner, and to realize a subtle balance between learning and gaming, and between challenge and ability on an individual basis. In contrast to traditional approaches of adaptive and intelligent tutoring, the key advantage of games is their immersive and motivational potential. Because of this, the psycho-pedagogical and didactic measures must not compromise gaming experience, immersion and flow. In the present paper, we introduce the concept of micro-adaptivity, an approach that enables an educational game to intelligently monitor and interpret the learner's behaviour in the game's virtual world in a non-invasive manner. On this basis, micro-adaptivity enables interventions, support, guidance or feedback in a meaningful, personalized way that is embedded in the game's flow. The presented approach was developed in the context of the European Enhanced Learning Experience and Knowledge TRAnsfer project. This project also realized a prototype game, demonstrating the capabilities, strengths and weaknesses of micro-adaptivity.

Kickmeier-Rust, M. and Albert, D. (2010), Micro-adaptivity: protecting immersion in didactically adaptive digital educational games. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 95–105. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00332.x
Keywords:

    * mobile learning;
    * ambient learning;
    * context awareness;
    * learner control;
    * ubiquitous learning;
    * e-learning;
    * collaborative learning

Abstract

This paper provides a critical analysis of Mobile Learning projects published before the end of 2007. The review uses a Mobile Learning framework to evaluate and categorize 102 Mobile Learning projects, and to briefly introduce exemplary projects for each category. All projects were analysed with the criteria: context, tools, control, communication, subject and objective. Although a significant number of projects have ventured to incorporate the physical context into the learning experience, few projects include a socializing context. Tool support ranges from pure content delivery to content construction by the learners. Although few projects explicitly discuss the Mobile Learning control issues, one can find all approaches from pure teacher control to learner control. Despite the fact that mobile phones initially started as a communication device, communication and collaboration play a surprisingly small role in Mobile Learning projects. Most Mobile Learning projects support novices, although one might argue that the largest potential is supporting advanced learners. All results show the design space and reveal gaps in Mobile Learning research.

Frohberg, D., Göth, C. and Schwabe, G. (2009), Mobile Learning projects – a critical analysis of the state of the art. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 307–331. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00315.x
Keywords:

    * engagement;
    * game-based learning;
    * learning effects;
    * location-based technology;
    * mobile History game;
    * motivation

Abstract

Using mobile games in education combines situated and active learning with fun in a potentially excellent manner. The effects of a mobile city game called Frequency 1550, which was developed by The Waag Society to help pupils in their first year of secondary education playfully acquire historical knowledge of medieval Amsterdam, were investigated in terms of pupil engagement in the game, historical knowledge, and motivation for History in general and the topic of the Middle Ages in particular. A quasi-experimental design was used with 458 pupils from 20 classes from five schools. The pupils in 10 of the classes played the mobile history game whereas the pupils in the other 10 classes received a regular, project-based lesson series. The results showed those pupils who played the game to be engaged and to gain significantly more knowledge about medieval Amsterdam than those pupils who received regular project-based instruction. No significant differences were found between the two groups with respect to motivation for History or the Middle Ages. The impact of location-based technology and game-based learning on pupil knowledge and motivation are discussed along with suggestions for future research.

Huizenga, J., Admiraal, W., Akkerman, S. and Dam, G. t. (2009), Mobile game-based learning in secondary education: engagement, motivation and learning in a mobile city game. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 332–344. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00316.x
Keywords:

    * behavioural pattern;
    * informal learning;
    * learning process;
    * mobile learning;
    * museum learning;
    * problem solving

Abstract

Mobile devices have been increasingly utilized in informal learning because of their high degree of portability; mobile guide systems (or electronic guidebooks) have also been adopted in museum learning, including those that combine learning strategies and the general audio–visual guide systems. To gain a deeper understanding of the features and limitations of these guide systems in a museum-learning context and also to provide new designs that better guide learners in interacting with peers and exhibitions, in-depth exploration of learners' actual visits and analyses of their behavioural patterns is crucial. This study was based on empirical observation and analysis of the learning behaviours (recorded on video) of 65 elementary-school students who were placed into three groups: mobile guide with problem-solving strategy, audio–visual mobile guide and paper-based learning-sheet guide. By coding and analysing the video and conducting sequential analysis and frequency analysis of learning-related discussion content, behavioural interaction patterns were determined by which the features and limitations of the different types of guides were compared. Among the findings, it was discovered that the students in the problem-solving mobile guide group showed a higher level of two-way interactions with their peers and the exhibits, as well as more learning-related discussions. Relevant suggestions for teachers, researchers and guide-systems developers are also given.

Sung, Y.-T., Hou, H.-T., Liu, C.-K. and Chang, K.-E. (2010), Mobile guide system using problem-solving strategy for museum learning: a sequential learning behavioural pattern analysis. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 106–115. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00345.x
Keywords:

    * assessment of student modeling skills;
    * modeling-based curriculum;
    * scientific modeling

Abstract  This study investigated acquisition and transfer of the modeling ability of fifth graders in various domains. Teaching interventions concentrated on the topic of marine ecosystems either through a modeling-based approach or a worksheet-based approach. A quasi-experimental (pre–post comparison study) design was used. The control group (n = 17) received a traditional worksheet-based instruction about ecosystems, whereas the experimental group (n = 16) received an instruction which was based on Stagecast Creator, an object-oriented programming tool, and a set of modeling-based curriculum materials. Paper-and-pencil tests were used both before and after the study to evaluate students' development of specific modeling skills. The data analysis followed both qualitative and quantitative methods. The findings of the present study indicate that (i) the development of modeling ability was effectively enhanced through the modeling-based approach, since, after instruction, students were able to transfer those aspects to unfamiliar contexts; in contrast, the more traditional worksheet-based approach did not promote the development of the same aspects of the modeling skill; and (ii) Stagecast Creator enabled students to construct, test, revise and validate dynamic computer-based models of a marine ecosystem through building, testing and debugging complex rules, routines and programs for simulating multiple behaviours and processes of marine species.

Papaevripidou, M., Constantinou, C. and Zacharia, Z. (2007), Modeling complex marine ecosystems: an investigation of two teaching approaches with fifth graders. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 145–157. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00217.x
Keywords:

    * epistemological beliefs;
    * mathematics education;
    * motivation;
    * volition

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of motivation, volition and belief change strategies, implemented with personal and group email messages, on students' attitudes, study habits and achievement in a calculus course for non-mathematics majors. Eighty four undergraduates enrolled in a calculus course received emails over a period of 8 weeks. The results indicated that there were negative trends in participants' attitudes towards mathematics except for the group receiving belief change strategies with personal messages. There were also negative trends in participants' study habits except for the group receiving motivation, volition and belief change strategies with personal messages. No single group over any other showed improvement in achievement. Explanations for the findings, limitations of the study and implications and possibilities for future studies are discussed.

Kim, C. and Keller, J. (2010), Motivation, volition and belief change strategies to improve mathematics learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 407–420. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00356.x
Keywords:

    * motivation;
    * satisfaction;
    * self-regulated learning;
    * Web-based training

Abstract  Many would agree that learning on the Web – a highly autonomous learning environment – may be difficult for individuals who lack motivation and self-regulated learning skills. Using a social cognitive view of academic motivation and self-regulation, the objective of the present study was to investigate the relations between students' motivational beliefs, their perceptions of the learning environment and their satisfaction with a self-paced, online course. Service academy undergraduates (n = 646) completed a questionnaire following online training. Pearson correlations indicate that task value, self-efficacy and perceived instructional quality were significantly positively related to each other and to students' overall satisfaction with the self-paced, online course. Additionally, results from a three-step hierarchical regression reveal that task value, self-efficacy and instructional quality were significant positive predictors of students' satisfaction; the final regression model accounted for approximately 54% of the variance in the outcome measure. These findings support and extend prior research in traditional classrooms and online education in university settings, indicating that military students' motivational beliefs about a learning task and their perceptions of instructional quality are related, in important ways, to their overall satisfaction with online instruction. Educational implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Artino, A. (2008), Motivational beliefs and perceptions of instructional quality: predicting satisfaction with online training. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 260–270. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00258.x
Keywords:

    * blogs;
    * knowledge;
    * learning;
    * narrative;
    * Web 2.0

Abstract  This paper investigates the impact of Web. 2.0 technologies on the ways learning can be conceived of as a narrative process within contemporary contexts, using blogs as an illustrative example. It is premised on the concept of narrative as a way in which individuals represent and organize experience in order to learn from it and make it shareable with others within social contexts. The first part of the paper offers a theoretical analysis of the role of narrative in the social construction of knowledge by the ways it enables users of Web 2.0 technologies to participate meaningfully in the exchange of experiences and ideas. The second part of the paper offers a ‘situated’ analysis of the narrative practices engaged with by users of blogs. A ‘narrative trail’ is used to provide a contextualized instance of the narrative practices which are involved. The paper concludes by examining the research issues which are raised and suggests a research agenda which is needed to explore Web 2.0 technologies as social utilities affecting knowledge production, in which the adaptation of narrative theory is a central feature.

Pachler, N. and Daly, C. (2009), Narrative and learning with Web 2.0 technologies: towards a research agenda. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 6–18. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00303.x
Keywords:

    * agency;
    * Digital Natives;
    * generation Y;
    * millenials;
    * Net Generation;
    * student experience

Abstract

Based on research investigating English first-year university students, this paper examined the case made for a new generation of young learners often described as the Net Generation or Digital Natives in terms of agency and choice. Generational arguments set out a case that links young people's attitudes and orientations to their lifelong exposure to networked and digital technologies. This paper drew on interview data from mixed methods research to suggest that the picture is more complex than the equation of exposure to new technologies and a generational change of attitudes and capacities. Starting from the position that interaction with technology is mediated by activity and an intentional stance, we examined the choices students make with regard to the technologies they engage with. We explored the perceived constraints students face and the way they either comply or resist such constraints. We concluded that agency actively shapes student engagement with technology but that an adequate conception of agency must expand beyond the person and the self to include notions of collective agency identifying the meso level as an activity system that mediates between the students and their technological setting.

Jones, C. and Healing, G. (2010), Net generation students: agency and choice and the new technologies. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 344–356. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00370.x
Keywords:

    * communities of practice;
    * networked identities;
    * networks;
    * social forms of organization;
    * weak and strong ties

Abstract  In this paper we take up a critique of the concept of Communities of Practice (CoP) voiced by several authors, who suggest that networks may provide a better metaphor to understand social forms of organization and learning. Through a discussion of the notion of networked learning and the critique of CoPs we shall argue that the metaphor or theory of networked learning is itself confronted with some central tensions and challenges that need to be addressed. We then explore these theoretical and analytic challenges to the network metaphor, through an analysis of a Danish social networking site. We argue that understanding meaning making and ‘networked identities’ may be relevant analytic entry points in navigating the challenges.

Ryberg, T. and Larsen, M. (2008), Networked identities: understanding relationships between strong and weak ties in networked environments. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 103–115. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00272.x
Keywords:

    * community;
    * dialogue;
    * networked learning;
    * networks;
    * weak ties

Abstract  In this paper, we explore the idea of weak ties in networked learning. We go back to the original conception of the strength of weak ties and relate this to Bakhtin and a dialogic understanding of networked learning. These theoretical ideas are applied to the examination of two networked settings in which educational leaders exchange ideas and have the potential to create knowledge. We examine these networks from the point of view of the overall pattern of interaction and from an interest in the kinds of dialogues engaged in by participants in the network. We identify an area for further research in a comparison of the dimensions of links that appear to be weaker in these networks, those concerning affective aspects of the relationship, with those concerned with the sharing of knowledge which appear to be relatively well developed. We suggest that presence and proximity become forms of telepresence and tele-proximity and rely more heavily on interactional means to achieve identity formation. Finally we note that knowledge is negotiated and the marks of its personal and situated origin are essential parts of the exchange through dialogue.

Jones, C., Ferreday, D. and Hodgson, V. (2008), Networked learning a relational approach: weak and strong ties. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 90–102. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00271.x
Keywords:

    * blended learning;
    * case study;
    * educational technology;
    * online learning;
    * preservice teacher training;
    * teacher education

Abstract  This paper illustrates a 5-year case study (from 2001 to 2005) regarding a course in educational technology that involved from 100 to 150 student teachers per year for a total of more than 500 trainees. Since the first version of the course, which was entirely based on a face-to-face approach, computer mediated collaborative learning techniques have gradually been introduced into the training program. The paper outlines the main problems faced in the various versions of the course, where different combinations were experimented with, and discusses the solutions adopted. The difficulties concern the demands of a large, diversified population and the methodological problems related to the non-neutrality of the introduction of online learning in the socio-cultural and organizational context of the study. The solutions include a highly flexible course design and a good balance and strict integration between traditional and online training techniques in the delivery of the course and in the assessment of trainees. Finally, we suggest possible directions for further research aimed at facilitating the infusion of online techniques in initial teacher training.

Delfino, M. and Persico, D. (2007), Online or face-to-face? Experimenting with different techniques in teacher training. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 351–365. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00220.x
Keywords:

    * absenteeism;
    * course management system;
    * lecture resources;
    * note taking

Abstract  One of the most common uses of a course management system in the on-campus environment is to offer lecture resources to students. Few researchers have investigated how students use such resources. This study considers student use of lecture resources that offer a representation of the lecture presented (i.e. lecture outline, lecture summary, audio recording) and the relationship of the use of such resources to examination performance and attendance. The present research is argued to be an extension of research that investigated the benefits of providing students instructor notes conducted some 30 years ago. The Internet provides a practical way to apply some of these ideas and to collect data on the reaction of students to the opportunity to view lecture resources. Students made very little use of the audio recordings. We suggest audio recordings may be regarded by students as less efficient and less useful than text-based lecture summaries. The use of online lecture resources, lecture attendance, and examination performance were positively related. For one of three examinations, there was a significant negative interaction of note use and attendance in predicting examination performance providing some support for the hypothesis that students may be able to successfully compensate by viewing online lecture resources when unable to attend class. Because students in this study were not asked to explain their use of these resources, the present findings are regarded as speculative. However, given the interests of many practitioners in providing students lecture resources, the descriptive data and the relationships observed here encourage additional investigation.

Grabe, M. and Christopherson, K. (2008), Optional student use of online lecture resources: resource preferences, performance and lecture attendance. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 1–10. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00228.x
Keywords:

    * Chinese herb medication;
    * digital learning material;
    * self-organizing map;
    * topic map

Abstract  This research aims to use hierarchical topic maps to compile digital learning material and to discuss its design and application possibilities. The system renders tremendous original assets and then embeds a self-organizing map (SOM) in the material database to produce topical learning materials, as in this case, an illustration through Chinese herb medication. It helps to demonstrate robust professional information as well as knowledge structures, and provides a customized and interactive learning dynamic to support both progressive and constructive learning styles.

The paper first gives a detailed procedural description of the material construction, explains how topic map techniques were applied, and observes the implications and potentials of the technology to education.

Both the technical and educational evaluations of using SOM topic maps in compilation of learning materials have resulted in positive feedback. SOM allows users to review the complete databank in structural hierarchical order, which provides comprehensive understanding of the entire set of learning materials, and also brings opportunities to users to discover knowledge related to their study area.

Shih, B.-J., Shih, J.-L. and Chen, R.-L. (2007), Organizing learning materials through hierarchical topic maps: an illustration through Chinese herb medication. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 477–490. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00230.x
Keywords:

    * affective computing;
    * human–computer interaction;
    * learning companions;
    * pedagogical agents;
    * social interaction;
    * virtual peers

Abstract  The potential of emotional interaction between human and computer has recently interested researchers in human–computer interaction. The instructional impact of this interaction in learning environments has not been established, however. This study examined the impact of emotion and gender of a pedagogical agent as a learning companion (PAL) on social judgements, interest, self-efficacy, and learning. Two experiments investigated separately the effects of a PAL's emotional expression and empathetic response. Experiment 1 focused on emotional expression (positive vs. negative vs. neutral) and gender (male vs. female) with a sample of 142 male and female college students in a computer literacy course. Experiment 2 investigated the impact of empathetic response (responsive vs. non-responsive) and gender with 56 pre-service teachers. Overall, the results yielded main and interaction effects of PAL emotion and gender on the dependent variables. In particular, the PAL's empathetic response had a positive impact on learner interest and self-efficacy; PAL gender had a positive impact on recall. The findings imply that the emotion and the gender of the digital learning companion could be utilized to optimize college students' motivation and learning.

Kim, Y., Baylor, A. and Shen, E. (2007), Pedagogical agents as learning companions: the impact of agent emotion and gender. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 220–234. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00210.x
Keywords:

    * action research;
    * e-learning;
    * pedagogy;
    * peer observation;
    * quality assurance;
    * reflective practice

Abstract  This paper describes a collaborative action research approach used to explore peer observation of teaching (POT) within the online environment. Although POT has become familiar in face-to-face teaching contexts, little is understood of its potential role in online settings. We conducted ‘virtual’ focus groups to explore the experience and views of 28 teachers and subjected our data to a thematic analysis. This informed the implementation of an innovative programme of POT, ‘Peer-to-peer Reflection on Pedagogical Practice’ (PROPP) among tutors of a Web-based MSc in International Primary Health Care at University College London. Modeled on an action learning set, the programme encourages collaborative reflection on teaching practices, based on participants' specific examples of online teaching. The PROPP model is consistent with Quality Enhancement, which we distinguish from Quality Assurance. Here, we describe the implementation of the PROPP programme within an action research framework and identify the factors that we consider critical to the success of peer observation within online courses. We highlight examples of aspects of teaching that have been discussed within the PROPP programme and offer suggestions of the kinds of evidence that could be incorporated into a portfolio to demonstrate the effectiveness of such an initiative.

Swinglehurst, D., Russell, J. and Greenhalgh, T. (2008), Peer observation of teaching in the online environment: an action research approach. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 383–393. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00274.x
Keywords:

    * critical thinking;
    * expert marking;
    * grading;
    * peerScholar online;
    * peer assessment;
    * writing

Abstract

As class sizes increase, methods of assessments shift from costly traditional approaches (e.g. expert-graded writing assignments) to more economic and logistically feasible methods (e.g. multiple-choice testing, computer-automated scoring, or peer assessment). While each method of assessment has its merits, it is peer assessment in particular, especially when made available online through a Web-based interface (e.g. our peerScholar system), that has the potential to allow a reintegration of open-ended writing assignments in any size class – and in a manner that is pedagogically superior to traditional approaches. Many benefits are associated with peer assessment, but it was the concerns that prompted two experimental studies (n = 120 in each) using peerScholar to examine mark agreement between and within groups of expert (graduate teaching assistants) and peer (undergraduate students) markers. Overall, using peerScholar accomplished the goal of returning writing into a large class, while producing grades similar in level and rank order as those provided by expert graders, especially when a grade accountability feature was used.

Paré, D. and Joordens, S. (2008), Peering into large lectures: examining peer and expert mark agreement using peerScholar, an online peer assessment tool. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 526–540. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00290.x
Keywords:

    * argumentative practices;
    * conceptual development;
    * dialogue;
    * reasoning

Abstract  This paper will present a review of design-based research conducted over the past 10 years that has modeled and promoted students' reasoning, conceptual change and argumentative dialogue processes and practices through designing a number of digital dialogue games. This line of work was inspired by some challenges and insights that emerged during projects dealing with conceptual change in science. Since then, the dialogical and pedagogical requirements for improved reasoning, knowledge development and conceptual understanding in a range of contexts have been addressed through projects that have designed and evaluated intelligent and highly interactive dialogue game tools, such as CoLLeGE (Computer-based Laboratory for Language Games in Education), AcademicTalk and InterLoc (Collaborative Interaction through scaffolding Locutions). This article will review this line of work through justifying and describing the rationale for its trajectory before presenting ongoing work that synthesizes and operationalizes its findings and insights. The ongoing work emphasizes an inclusive and personalized approach to learning dialogue that stimulates reasoning, collaborative thinking and the development of argumentative dialogue practices. This is arguably relevant to most learning contexts, and especially to contemporary science education. Finally, conclusions are drawn about the role of dialogue in learning in the digital age.

Ravenscroft, A. (2007), Promoting thinking and conceptual change with digital dialogue games. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 453–465. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00232.x
Keywords:

    * classroom study;
    * mediating artefacts;
    * mobile technologies;
    * off-task activities;
    * socio-cultural perspective

Abstract

Mobile technology is ubiquitous and diverse and permeates many aspects of daily life at home, during leisure activities, and in public spaces. The study presented here is of two sixth grade classes in Michigan, USA and two seventh grade classes in Norway. The students and the teachers in these four classrooms were equipped with mobile technologies (PDAs). We found that the students' PDA-mediated actions in the classroom were not exclusively used for the tasks and activities set by the teacher, but that the students also used the PDAs on their own initiative – so-called ‘off-task’ activities. We analyze the findings by reconsidering off-task activities from a sociocultural perspective.

Mifsud, L. and Mørch, A. (2010), Reconsidering off-task: a comparative study of PDA-mediated activities in four classrooms. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 190–201. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00346.x
Keywords:

    * simulations;
    * distance learning

Abstract  This paper proposes a reconsideration of use of computer simulations in science education. We discuss three studies of the use of science simulations for undergraduate distance learning students. The first one, The Driven Pendulum simulation is a computer-based experiment on the behaviour of a pendulum. The second simulation, Evolve is concerned with natural selection in a hypothetical species of a flowering plant. The third simulation, The Double Slit Experiment deals with electron diffraction and students are provided with an experimental setup to investigate electron diffraction for double and single slit arrangements. We evaluated each simulation, with 30 students each for The Driven Pendulum and Evolve simulations and about 100 students for The Double Slit Experiment. From these evaluations we have developed a set of the features for the effective use of simulations in distance learning. The features include student support, multiple representations and tailorability.

Blake, C. and Scanlon, E. (2007), Reconsidering simulations in science education at a distance: features of effective use. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 491–502. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00239.x
Keywords:

    * activity systems;
    * Activity Theory;
    * learning communities;
    * learning object repositories (LORs);
    * phenomenography;
    * socio-cultural issues in technology use

Abstract  Globally, institutions are setting up digital repositories to support the sharing of resources for teaching and learning. The educational rationale is that a single set of resources can be restructured to support different pedagogical approaches and to achieve economies of scale. A key problem is that these learning object repositories (LORs), like many other learning technology innovations, are often designed to exploit the capabilities of technology rather than to meet learners' needs. The premise of this study is that the nature and organization of a community is likely to impact the way an LOR is used. Key dimensions of repositories and communities are discussed. Three repository systems are analysed to identify how communities use repositories. Guided by Activity Theory, the LORs and user communities are analysed as activity systems. These activity systems are compared and contradictions between them are identified. From the analysis, barriers and enablers for the use of LORs to support learning are discussed and a framework for addressing the key issues in the repository development stage is proposed.

Margaryan, A. and Littlejohn, A. (2008), Repositories and communities at cross-purposes: issues in sharing and reuse of digital learning resources. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 333–347. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00267.x
Keywords:

    * interpretation;
    * learning services;
    * Semantic Web

Abstract Recent work on applying semantic technologies to learning has concentrated on providing novel means of accessing and making use of learning objects. However, this is unnecessarily limiting: semantic technologies will make it possible to develop a range of educational Semantic Web services, such as interpretation, structure-visualization, support for argumentation, novel forms of content customization, novel mechanisms for aggregating learning material, citation services and so on. In this paper, we outline an initial framework that extends the use of semantic technologies as a means of providing learning services that are owned and created by learning communities.

Dzbor, M., Stutt, A., Motta, E. and Collins, T. (2007), Representations for semantic learning webs: Semantic Web technology in learning support. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 69–82. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00202.x
Keywords:

    * cognitive load theory;
    * conceptual change;
    * misconceptions;
    * multimedia learning;
    * physics education research;
    * vicarious learning

Abstract  In this study, 364 first-year physics students were randomly assigned to one of four online multimedia treatments on Newton's First and Second Laws of Motion: (1) the ‘Exposition’, a concise lecture-style presentation; (2) the ‘Extended Exposition’, the Exposition with additional interesting information; (3) the ‘Refutation’, the Exposition with common misconceptions explicitly stated and refuted; or (4) the ‘Dialogue’, a student–tutor discussion of the same material as in the Refutation. Students were tested using questions from mechanics conceptual inventories before and after watching the multimedia treatments. Results show the Refutation and Dialogue produced the greatest learning gains, with effect sizes of 0.79 and 0.83, respectively, compared with the Exposition. Students with low prior knowledge benefited most, however high prior knowledge learners were not disadvantaged by the misconception-based approach. The findings suggest that online multimedia can be greatly improved, promoting conceptual change in students with all levels of experience, by including a discussion of misconceptions.

Muller, D., Bewes, J., Sharma, M. and Reimann, P. (2008), Saying the wrong thing: improving learning with multimedia by including misconceptions. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 144–155. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00248.x
Keywords:

    * argumentation;
    * computer-supported collaborative argumentation (CSCA);
    * epistemological beliefs;
    * ill-structured problem;
    * problem solving;
    * scaffolding

Abstract  In this study, constraint-based argumentation scaffolding was proposed to facilitate online argumentation performance and ill-structured problem solving during online discussions. In addition, epistemological beliefs were presumed to play a role in solving ill-structured diagnosis–solution problems. Constraint-based discussion boards were implemented to scaffold pre-service teachers' online discussions about behaviour management (diagnosis–solution) problems. The scaffolded discussion group generated more evidence notes and also generated more hypothesis messages and hypothesis testing messages as well as problem space construction messages. There was a relationship between epistemological beliefs and ill-structured problem solving. Simple knowledge, omniscient authority, and fixed ability significantly predicted problem-solving performance. A significant negative relationship between simple knowledge and individual problem-solving performance was found. This implies that individuals who believe in simple knowledge may be less inclined to explore more solution alternatives. However, contrary to prediction, omniscient authority and fixed ability beliefs were positively associated with problem-solving processes.

Oh, S. and Jonassen, D. (2007), Scaffolding online argumentation during problem solving. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 95–110. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00206.x
Keywords:

    * blended learning;
    * competition;
    * cooperation;
    * hybrid learning

Abstract

Emerging research has revealed the impact of electronic media usage on student outcomes, such as satisfaction and reported learning efficacy. However, little is known of its impact on measurable knowledge acquisition. Results from this study showed that participation on discussion topics through Blackboard, an electronic discussion forum, predicted multiple-choice test performance. In contrast, none of the traditional face-to-face feedback-seeking behaviours, neither with professors in class or out of class, nor among fellow students, had significant influence on test results. An examination of underlying attitudes driving both electronic and face-to-face feedback-seeking behaviours showed that competitiveness rather than cooperation drove average intensity of electronic board participation, which in turn, was related to participation across the number of electronic topical forums. The influencing role of competitiveness in this undergraduate student sample may indicate undergraduate students' lack of workplace experience, where cooperation rather than competition is often needed for workplace effectiveness. This and implications of other findings are discussed in the paper.

Hwang, A. and Arbaugh, J. (2009), Seeking feedback in blended learning: competitive versus cooperative student attitudes and their links to learning outcome. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 280–293. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00311.x
Keywords:

    * adult learning;
    * constructivism;
    * interactive learning environments;
    * Internet-based instruction;
    * self-directed learning readiness

Abstract

This article examines several research questions to establish a theory model for explaining factors that influence adult learners' preferences for constructivist Internet-based learning environments (CILE). Data were gathered from 541 individual participants enrolled in adult education institutes in Taiwan for structural equation modelling (SEM) analyses. The research results established a 10-scale instrument for assessing adult learners' preferences for CILE. Among the scales of CILE, adult students placed the highest value on relevance to life and reflective thinking, and scored the lowest for critical judgement, ease of use and student negotiation. The SEM analyses revealed that compared to Internet self-efficacy (ISE), self-directed learning readiness plays a major role in predicting adults' preferences for their learning environment, especially for the higher level of intellectual challenge. ISE plays a mediating role in the relationships between Internet usage and the participants' preferences. This result suggests that more time spent on Internet practice may increase adult learners' ISE, which may strengthen their preferences for Internet-based learning environments.

Chu, R. J.-C. and Tsai, C.-C. (2009), Self-directed learning readiness, Internet self-efficacy and preferences towards constructivist Internet-based learning environments among higher-aged adults. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 489–501. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00324.x
Keywords:

    * serious games;
    * complex skills;
    * design framework;
    * higher education;
    * scenario-based games

Abstract  Serious games open up many new opportunities for complex skills learning in higher education. The inherent complexity of such games, though, requires large efforts for their development. This paper presents a framework for serious game design, which aims to reduce the design complexity at conceptual, technical and practical levels. The approach focuses on a relevant subset of serious games labelled as scenario-based games. At the conceptual level, it identifies the basic elements that make up the static game configuration; it also describes the game dynamics, i.e. the state changes of the various game components in the course of time. At the technical level, it presents a basic system architecture, which comprises various building tools. Various building tools will be explained and illustrated with technical implementations that are part of the Emergo toolkit for scenario-based game development. At the practical level, a set of design principles are presented for controlling and reducing game design complexity. The principles cover the topics of game structure, feedback and game representation, respectively. Practical application of the framework and the associated toolkit is briefly reported and evaluated.

Westera, W., Nadolski, R., Hummel, H. and Wopereis, I. (2008), Serious games for higher education: a framework for reducing design complexity. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 420–432. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00279.x
2007~2010
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning
Keywords:

    * educational change;
    * empowerment;
    * social capital;
    * tablet PC

Abstract

The standard model of technology diffusion argues that changing teachers' perceptions and epistemological beliefs about the value of an innovation is conducive to successful implementation. It is believed that teachers' receptiveness to technology and a re-conceptualization of its role in teaching and learning can drive the development of new pedagogies and curricula and eventually, bring about a new learning experience. In this paper, we argued that changing teachers' conceptions does not necessarily effect change in their practices and student learning. The results of our case study indicated that the impetus for change comes from the social capital and informal social forces in the school, and that parental support, permeation of technology in student learning and teacher empowerment are pivotal to the success of the implementation.

Li, S. (2010), Social capital, empowerment and educational change: a scenario of permeation of one-to-one technology in school. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 284–295. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00350.x
Ravenscroft, A. (2009), Social software, Web 2.0 and learning: status and implications of an evolving paradigm. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 1–5. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00308.x
Keywords:

    * interaction analysis;
    * prompting student reflection;
    * socio-cultural theory;
    * Web-based inquiry learning environments

Abstract

This paper reports on a qualitative study of students' engagement with a Web-based inquiry environment aimed at prompting student reflection in processes of scientific inquiry. In order to demonstrate how prompts become structuring resources for students' scientific inquiry, detailed analyses of students' interaction processes are conducted. The students' written responses to the reflection prompts indicated a widespread use of a ‘copy and paste’ strategy. The analyses of student interaction deepen this finding and show that instead of participating in reflection activities, the students make use of these ‘copy and paste’ strategies in order to come up with ‘correct’ answers to the prompts. Further, the analyses indicate that the students' employment of these strategies can be seen as a response to what can be termed the institutional practices of schooling embedded within the design of the prompts. These findings are discussed and explored in accordance with findings from previous studies on prompting students' reflection in Web-based inquiry environments. The study demonstrates the value of a socio-cultural perspective for gaining a deeper understanding of students' engagement with Web-based learning environments. Such a perspective can give valuable insight into how to (re)design prompts, and how prompts can be productive parts of students' learning.

Furberg, A. (2009), Socio-cultural aspects of prompting student reflection in Web-based inquiry learning environments. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 397–409. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00320.x
Keywords:

    * collaboration;
    * computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL);
    * networked learning;
    * role assignment;
    * scripting;
    * self-assessment

Abstract

This article examines the impact of the introduction of roles and the added value of self-assessment on students' level of knowledge construction in online asynchronous discussions in a first-year university course in instructional sciences. Students' postings in 20 discussion groups were used as the research data for this study. All messages, submitted during the 12-week discussion period and comprising four discussion themes of 3 weeks each, were analysed. Repeated-measures multilevel modeling was adopted to analyse the data from the content analysis. The results point at a significant positive impact of assigning roles to students. However, this positive impact depends on the moment of the introduction of the roles. Higher levels of social knowledge construction were found in discussion groups where roles were introduced right at the start of the discussions and faded out towards the end. The results further indicate that self-assessment has no significant added value.

De Wever, B., Van Keer, H., Schellens, T. and Valcke, M. (2009), Structuring asynchronous discussion groups: the impact of role assignment and self-assessment on students' levels of knowledge construction through social negotiation. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 177–188. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00292.x
Keywords:

    * classroom assessment;
    * digital teaching portfolios;
    * learning;
    * professional development;
    * reflection

Abstract

Digital teaching portfolios have been proposed as an effective tool for teacher learning and professional development, but there is a lack of empirical evidence supporting their effectiveness. This study proposed the design of a structured digital portfolio equipped with multiple aids (e.g. self-assessment, peer assessment, discussion and journal writing) for the professional development of teachers. This study also empirically evaluated the reflection and professional development as demonstrated in digital teaching portfolios with multiple supporting measures. Forty-four in-service substitute teachers participated in a course of classroom assessment and used a Web-based portfolio system. Based on the framework of teacher reflective thinking developed by Sparks-Langer et al., we found that most teachers demonstrated moderate levels of reflection in their journals but only one-third of them showed the highest level of reflection. We also found that the professional knowledge of teachers about classroom assessment – as shown by their implementation of it – improved significantly during the construction of portfolios. The above findings also represent good evidence that digital portfolios with multiple aids are beneficial to teacher reflection and professional development.

Sung, Y.-T., Chang, K.-E., Yu, W.-C. and Chang, T.-H. (2009), Supporting teachers' reflection and learning through structured digital teaching portfolios. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 375–385. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00312.x
Keywords:

    * collaborative virtual environments;
    * cross-national projects;
    * CSCL;
    * virtual community

Abstract  The purpose of this study is to provide guidelines for teachers to carry out cross-national educational projects in schools through the introduction of virtual environments as a means of reshaping classroom-based activities. The theoretical foundations of the study are rooted in computer supported collaborative learning and the community of learners model. The case of Euroland is discussed as a successful example of mixing a face-to-face community with a larger community, which populates a virtual space. The virtual space used in this project features two pieces of software – a discussion forum and a three-dimensional virtual world – each of which are considered to be complementary. Students (ranging from 9 to 14 years old) from seven schools located in two European countries (Italy and The Netherlands) participated in the project. The development of Euroland took place across three temporal phases. These are described through four indicators, considered as relevant practices that are easily observed. The first indicator relates to the use of tools embedded within the virtual environments, very exploratory in the first phase, becoming more and more integrated in the phases that follow. The second indicator relates to the quality of interaction with partners at a distance, initially based on a simple representation and awareness of them, ultimately becoming more precise and detailed. The third indicator relates to the development of a sense of belonging to a community, initially limited to the in-the-classroom community and then progressively extended to the virtual community as indicated by the increased amount of time devoted to navigation and online activities and an increased use in quoting instances of activities in online life. The final indicator refers more specifically to the range of educational strategies' teachers should use in such contexts. As results of the analysis of how the indicators are set during each phase, teachers' guidelines are established. Teacher guidelines are given by differentiating between in-classroom and online contexts with the aim of obtaining the best possible results in accomplishing a project-like Euroland.

Ligorio, M. and Van der Meijden, H. (2008), Teacher guidelines for cross-national virtual communities in primary education. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 11–25. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00240.x
Keywords:

    * teacher training;
    * teaching competencies;
    * technology in the classroom;
    * technology transfer;
    * training domains

Abstract  There is growing interest in the integration of technology into the classroom. A range of initiatives have been launched to develop in-service teacher training processes that will strengthen this integration. In the present paper, we systematize the findings of a large selection of studies on this topic, focusing on domains and competencies linked to teacher training propositions for technology integration. Our main result is the presentation of six such domains that have been proposed in the existing literature: instrumental/technological, pedagogical/curricular, didactic/methodological, evaluative/investigative, communicational/relational and personal/attitudinal. A set of teaching competencies for each domain is also identified. These domains and competencies together form the bases for creating a technology integration training model.

Guzman, A. and Nussbaum, M. (2009), Teaching competencies for technology integration in the classroom. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 453–469. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00322.x
Keywords:

    * acquired knowledge;
    * computer animation;
    * improvement in comprehension;
    * learning of protein synthesis;
    * multimedia learning;
    * retention of knowledge and comprehension

Abstract

The main goal of this study was to explore whether the use of multimedia in genetics instruction contributes more to students' knowledge and comprehension than other instructional modes. We were also concerned with the influence of different instructional modes on the retention of knowledge and comprehension. In a quasi-experimental design, four comparable groups of 3rd and 4th grade high school students were taught the process of protein synthesis: group 1 was taught in the traditional lecture format (n = 112 students), group 2 only by reading text (n = 124 students), group 3 through multimedia that integrated two short computer animations (n = 115 students) and group 4 by text supplemented with illustrations (n = 117 students). All students received one pre-test in order to estimate their prior knowledge, and two post-tests in order to assess knowledge and comprehension immediately after learning and again after 5 weeks. Results showed that students comprising groups 3 and 4 acquired better knowledge and improved comprehension skills than the other two groups. Similar results were observed for retention of acquired knowledge and improved comprehension. These findings lead to the conclusion that better learning outcomes can be obtained by the use of animations or at least illustrations when learning genetics.

Starbek, P., Starčič Erjavec, M. and Peklaj, C. (2010), Teaching genetics with multimedia results in better acquisition of knowledge and improvement in comprehension. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 214–224. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00344.x
Keywords:

    * control group;
    * empirical;
    * information systems;
    * Internet;
    * language learning;
    * satisfaction;
    * World Wide Web

Abstract  A field experiment compares the effectiveness and satisfaction associated with technology-assisted learning with that of face-to-face learning. The empirical evidence suggests that technology-assisted learning effectiveness depends on the target knowledge category. Building on Kolb's experiential learning model, we show that technology-assisted learning improves students' acquisition of knowledge that demands abstract conceptualization and reflective observation but adversely affects their ability to obtain knowledge that requires concrete experience. Technology-assisted learning better supports vocabulary learning than face-to-face learning but is comparatively less effective in developing listening comprehension skills. In addition, according to empirical tests, perceived ease of learning and learning community support significantly predict both perceived learning effectiveness and learning satisfaction. Overall, the results support our hypotheses and research model and suggest instructors should consider the target knowledge when considering technology-assisted learning options or designing a Web-based course. In addition, a supportive learning community can make technology-assisted learning easier for students and increase their learning satisfaction.

Hui, W., Hu, P.-H., Clark, T., Tam, K. and Milton, J. (2008), Technology-assisted learning: a longitudinal field study of knowledge category, learning effectiveness and satisfaction in language learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 245–259. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00257.x
Keywords:

    * CAL;
    * cognitive conflict theory;
    * simulation;
    * statistical misconception;
    * statistical understanding

Abstract

Simulation-based computer assisted learning (CAL) is recommended to help students understand important statistical concepts, although the current systems are still far from ideal. Simulation-Assisted Learning Statistics (SALS) is a simulation-based CAL that is developed with a learning model that is based on cognitive conflict theory to correct misconceptions and enhance understanding of correlation. In this study, a mixed method (embedded experiment model) was utilized to examine the effects of SALS-based learning compared with lecture-based learning. The sample was composed of 72 grade-12 students, who were randomly assigned to either the experimental group or the comparison group. The findings reveal that the SALS-based learning approach is significantly more effective than lecture-based learning, in terms of correcting students' misconceptions and improving their understanding of correlation. The study also uses quantitative and qualitative data to examine how the learning model of the SALS-based learning approach contributes to the enhanced learning outcomes. Finally, practical suggestions were made with regard to directions for future studies.

Liu, T.-C., Lin, Y.-C. and Kinshuk (2010), The application of Simulation-Assisted Learning Statistics (SALS) for correcting misconceptions and improving understanding of correlation. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 143–158. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00330.x
Keywords:

    * Digital pedagogies;
    * repurposing;
    * social technologies;
    * wikis;
    * weblogs

Abstract  This paper presents some of the findings from a recent project that conducted a virtual ethnographic study of three formal courses in higher education that use ‘Web 2.0’ or social technologies for learning and teaching. It describes the pedagogies adopted within these courses, and goes on to explore some key themes emerging from the research and relating to the pedagogical use of weblogs and wikis in particular. These themes relate primarily to the academy's tendency to constrain and contain the possibly more radical effects of these new spaces. Despite this, the findings present a range of student and tutor perspectives which show that these technologies have significant potential as new collaborative, volatile and challenging environments for formal learning.

Hemmi, A., Bayne, S. and Land, R. (2009), The appropriation and repurposing of social technologies in higher education. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 19–30. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00306.x
Keywords:

    * e-learning materials;
    * elementary science learning;
    * participatory design;
    * 5E learning cycle

Abstract

This study incorporates the 5E learning cycle strategy to design and develop Sharable Content Object Reference Model-conformant materials for elementary science education. The 5E learning cycle that supports the constructivist approach has been widely applied in science education. The strategy consists of five phases: engagement, exploration, explanation, elaboration and evaluation. It has potential value for creating effective science e-learning materials. This study implemented the participatory design (PD) method to investigate the possibility of applying the 5E model to science e-learning materials. PD is an approach that understands knowledge by doing and focuses on collaborating with the intended users rather than designing ‘for’ them. In this study, researchers, designers and elementary science teachers cooperated at all stages of the design process (including explanation, analysis and decision making). The issues to be dealt with in this study included instructional designs based on the 5E model, techniques or specifications of e-learning, learning objects, metadata and procedures. The results of this study provided concrete recommendations for how to incorporate the 5E learning cycle and how to develop effective e-learning materials for elementary science instruction.

Su, C., Chiu, C. and Wang, T. (2010), The development of SCORM-conformant learning content based on the learning cycle using participatory design. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 392–406. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00355.x
Keywords:

    * animation;
    * comprehension;
    * interest;
    * need for cognition;
    * self-paced presentation;
    * static graphics

Abstract  Although animations are believed to be effective in learning and teaching, several studies have failed to confirm this. Nevertheless, animations might be more attractive and motivating. Fourth and sixth grade students learned the operation of a bicycle pump from graphics that were: (i) presented simultaneously; (ii) presented successively; (iii) self-paced, or (iv) animated. The presentation mode affected evaluation of perceived comprehensibility, interestingness, enjoyment and motivation, but not comprehension test score. Fourth graders who were low in need for cognition rated the animations as more enjoyable and motivating, whereas sixth graders rated self-paced graphics as more interesting and motivating. The evaluations of sixth graders correspond to results of many studies on learning. Animations are not more effective than equivalent static graphics in learning, and they are not seen as more motivating by sixth graders.

Kim, S., Yoon, M., Whang, S.-M., Tversky, B. and Morrison, J. (2007), The effect of animation on comprehension and interest. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 260–270. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00219.x
Keywords:

    * achievement outcomes;
    * cognitive support;
    * computerized problem-solving;
    * reflective support;
    * structural support;
    * subject-matter support

Abstract  This study examined the effect of scaffolding learning components in a computerized environment, for students solving qualitative science problems in a simulation of laboratory experiments. Four scaffolding components were identified (structural, reflective, subject-matter and enrichment) and used in different configurations to construct four unique cognitive and meta-cognitive support programs based on human teaching. These ranged from low (Enrichment) to full support (Integrated). We compared the scaffolded groups with one another and with a non-scaffolded control group. A ‘mathematics and reading comprehension’ questionnaire was used to divide the participants (n = 473) into ability levels. At different points of time, achievement outcomes were measured by three open-ended subject-matter questionnaires, tapping knowledge and understanding. The findings indicate differential effects of the support programs mostly in the following order: Integrated > Strategic > Operative >  Enrichment > Control. The structural component seems to be a sine qua non for success and has a consistent and powerful influence. The combination of reflection and structural components, however, are needed for superior achievement. Both reflection and subject-matter components work cumulatively over time.

Fund, Z. (2007), The effects of scaffolded computerized science problem-solving on achievement outcomes: a comparative study of support programs. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 410–424. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00226.x
Keywords:

    * essay;
    * examination;
    * graphics tablet;
    * laptop

Abstract  Most of our students complete most of their written assignments using a word processor, but they are still asked to handwrite responses in an examination. It could be argued that they have not practiced this task and the validity of the assessment could thus be questioned. This paper explores the possibility of bringing computers into the traditional essay-examination context, describes an appropriate hardware and software configuration, and provides feedback from initial evaluations with students and their reactions to the idea. Some of the implications and equity concerns that need to be considered before a decision can be made to use computers in essay exams are also discussed.

Mogey, N., Sarab, G., Haywood, J., Van Heyningen, S., Dewhurst, D., Hounsell, D. and Neilson, R. (2008), The end of handwriting? Using computers in traditional essay examinations. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 39–46. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00243.x
Keywords:

    * computer assisted learning;
    * developments;
    * review

Abstract

This article comments on how the core idea of the computer as an assistant to teaching and learning became reconfigured through changing technologies, pedagogies and educational cultures. Early influential researchers in computer assisted learning (CAL) made strong but differing links to theories and representations of learning, showing a relevance to pedagogy through innovative projects. Amid controversy, the educational potential of CAL became recognized and hardware–software developments stimulated the involvement of teachers in shaping applications and practices within contexts that favoured a constructivist student focus. Further advances in technology gave students greater autonomy in the style and management of learning, and enabled CAL to be redefined as a participative and collaborative enterprise. Institutions responded through supports and structures in ways that suited their wider educational policies. Technological developments (and controversies) continue to extend and reshape the applications of CAL, and this reflection points to the significance of the interplay between theory and practice in this evolving and redefining process.

Hartley, R. (2010), The evolution and redefining of ‘CAL’: a reflection on the interplay of theory and practice. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 4–17. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00340.x


Keywords:

    * computer-based 3D models;
    * design experiment;
    * interaction analysis;
    * science education;
    * situated computer-supported collaborative learning;
    * socio-cultural interpretations of knowledge constructions

Abstract

This article is a methodological contribution to the use of design experiments in educational research. We will discuss the implications of a historical and situated interpretation to design experiments, the consequences this has for the analysis of the collected data and empirically based suggestions to improve the designs of the computer-based learning resources. This interpretation differs from that of the majority of other researchers who consider design experiments as fixed interventions. Our interpretation allows for an understanding of students' learning trajectories as part of the school's overall activities, which in turn has implications for suggestions regarding the improvement of computer-based learning resources. We develop argument in three different ways. First, we discuss our interpretation of design experiments and compare it with the dominant debate about design experiments as a methodological approach. Second, we discuss the implications this position has for interaction analysis methods. Finally, we empirically demonstrate this methodological implication by illustrating how vital it might be to consider data collected as part of design experiments as an element of a larger, established institutional setting characterized by inherent socio-cultural features. A conclusion that may be drawn from our situated interpretation of this design experiment is that, to improve students' knowledge constructions, it is not enough – nor is it in principle possible – to perfect the design of the technology. We also need to improve institutional aspects on how schools support students' knowledge constructions when using these technological tools, where the teacher's role in this work is invaluable. A historical and situated interpretation of design experiments provides insight into how these improvements may be made.

Krange, I. and Ludvigsen, S. (2009), The historical and situated nature design experiments – Implications for data analysis. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 268–279. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00307.x
Keywords:

    * learning protocols;
    * net-based learning;
    * computer-supported collaborative learning;
    * referencing;
    * typing

Abstract

Net-based collaborative learning discourses often suffer from deficiencies such as lack of coherence and coordination. It is suggested that the provision of two functionalities, referencing and typing, which learners may optionally use to ground their contributions during a chat-based discourse, can improve collaborative learning. In particular, we examined if goal focus, type of task and group size affect learning outcomes and the use of these functionalities. A chat-based system, called a learning protocol, implements these functionalities and serves as a net-based collaborative learning environment. Results suggest that a learning protocol is more beneficial for knowledge-acquisition tasks than for problem-solving tasks, and that the use of supporting functionalities increases when goal focus is on the group rather than on the individual. Also, there is a tendency that learning outcomes improve as group size increases. We propose that learning protocols provide potentially valuable design features that can promote net-based collaborative learning.

Pfister, H.-R. and Oehl, M. (2009), The impact of goal focus, task type and group size on synchronous net-based collaborative learning discourses. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 161–176. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00287.x
Keywords:

    * agent of change;
    * information and communication technology;
    * motivation;
    * Rwanda;
    * teacher education;
    * zone of proximal development

Abstract

The paper describes a study conducted in Rwanda involving 12 participants selected from a larger cohort of 24 final-year university students who were part of a group-based training programme. The programme was about how to search, retrieve, and use web-based literature. Empirical data were collected through interviews and focus group discussions. The purpose was to explore ways of using information and communication technology (ICT) in student teachers' everyday learning practice. The study draws from a sociocultural perspective and emphasis is put on a literature review involving ICT in teacher education. The findings reveal that utilization of ICT pertains to three major types of variation among student teachers who use ICT: passive, reluctant, and active users. The active ICT users demonstrated a capacity to cross group boundaries and play a central role as agents of change in learning practice. The point is that more experienced student teachers can assist their colleagues in the zone of proximal development and, therefore, enhance the integration of the new technology in teacher education. This implies that having access to ICT together with some instruction is not sufficient to prompt students to start using this technology as a pedagogical tool. Moreover, confrontation of different experiences regarding the use of ICT can spearhead change in student teachers' learning practice through critical reflection.

Mukama, E. (2009), The interplay between learning and the use of ICT in Rwandan student teachers' everyday practice. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 539–548. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00326.x
Keywords:

    * long term effects;
    * individual differences;
    * modality effect;
    * multimedia learning;
    * primary school;
    * user-paced

Abstract

The modality learning effect proposes that learning is enhanced when information is presented in both the visual and the auditory domains (e.g. pictures and spoken information) compared with presenting information solely in the visual channel (e.g. pictures and written text). Most of the evidence for this effect comes from adults in a laboratory setting. Therefore, we tested the modality effect with 80 children in the highest grade of elementary school in a naturalistic setting. In a between-subjects design, the children either saw representational pictures with speech or representational pictures with text. Retention and transfer knowledge was tested at three moments: immediately after the intervention, one day after and after one week. The present study did not find any evidence for a modality effect in children when the lesson was learner-paced. Instead, we found a reversed modality effect directly after the intervention for retention. A reversed modality effect was also found for the transfer questions one day later. This effect was robust, even when controlling for individual differences.

Witteman, M. and Segers, E. (2010), The modality effect tested in children in a user-paced multimedia environment. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 132–142. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00335.x
Keywords:

    * educational change;
    * ethics;
    * futures;
    * policy;
    * technology

Abstract

The educational technology research field has been at the heart of debates about the future of education for the last quarter century. This paper explores the socio-technical developments that the next 25 years might bring and the implications of such developments for educators and for educational technology research. The paper begins by outlining the diverse approaches to educational futures that are currently visible in the field, and suggests four principles to underpin future thinking in educational technology. It then describes the methods used to inquire into long-term socio-technical futures in the 2-year Beyond Current Horizons Programme. These included a foresight and scenario development process bringing together evidence reviews and insights from over 100 researchers from disciplines as diverse as computer science, demography and sociology of childhood, as well as consultation with over 130 organizations and individuals from industry, practice and educational beneficiary groups. The outcomes of this programme are then presented, including a set of future scenarios for education and a set of socio-technical developments that might underpin such scenarios. The scenarios emerge from three future worlds (‘Trust Yourself’, ‘Loyalty Points’ and ‘Only Connect’), and from projections including: changing demography, new human–machine relations and a weakening of institutional boundaries. The paper then argues that the next 25 years will challenge our current organization of education around the unit of the individual child, the school and the discourses of the knowledge economy; and will require the development of new approaches to curriculum, cross-institutional relationships, workforce development and decision-making in education. Finally, the paper argues that these developments challenge educational technology research to move beyond pedagogy to curriculum; beyond the school to the community, home and workplace; and beyond social sciences to collaborations with medical and bio-ethics fields.

Facer, K. and Sandford, R. (2010), The next 25 years?: future scenarios and future directions for education and technology. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 74–93. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00337.x
Keywords:

    * learning theory;
    * models of practice;
    * pedagogy and e-learning

Abstract  The promotion of e-learning in policies internationally has led to questions about how best to employ technology in support of learning. A range of models has since been developed that attempts to relate pedagogy to technology. However, research into the effectiveness of such models in changing teaching practice is sparse, and work that compares these models to practitioners' own representations of their practice is absent. The study described here involved asking practitioners to model their own practice, and to compare these with a model developed by a government organization. Practitioners were adept at using existing models and repurposing them to suit their own context. Our research provided evidence of broad acceptance of the existing model with practitioners, but indicated that practitioners would take this tool and remodel it for their own contexts of learning to make it meaningful, relevant and useful to them.

De Freitas, S., Oliver, M., Mee, A. and Mayes, T. (2008), The practitioner perspective on the modeling of pedagogy and practice. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 26–38. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00241.x
Keywords:

    * electronic dictionary;
    * human-computer interface;
    * mobile learning;
    * second language learning

Abstract

This study addressed the role of electronic pocket dictionaries as a language learning tool among university students in Hong Kong and Taiwan. The target groups included engineering and humanities students at both undergraduate and graduate level. Speed of reference was found to be the main motivator for using an electronic pocket dictionary. Next, the functionality used was found to be connected to the language proficiency of the learner. Finally, multimedia content was ranked least important. The results of this study have implications for the design of electronic dictionaries and for the teaching of second languages with electronic dictionaries. In particular, device developers should focus on improving the accessing speed and pay less attention to multimedia functionality. Educators should ensure that the device functionality matches the language proficiency level of the students.

Jian, H.-L., Sandnes, F. E., Law, K. M. Y., Huang, Y.-P. and Huang, Y.-M. (2009), The role of electronic pocket dictionaries as an English learning tool among Chinese students. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 503–514. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00325.x
Keywords:

    * computers and education;
    * educational technology;
    * future of education;
    * history of education;
    * life long learning;
    * schools and technology

Abstract

This paper drew upon a recent book (Rethinking Education in the Age of Technology) to summarize a number of prospects and challenges arising from the appropriation of digital technology into learning and educational practice. Tensions between traditional models of schooling and the affordances of digital media were noted, while the promise of these technologies for shaping a new system of education was reviewed. It was argued that new technology brings radical opportunities but also significant challenges. The urgency of seeking a coherent model for the future of education in a technological age was stressed.

Collins, A. and Halverson, R. (2010), The second educational revolution: rethinking education in the age of technology. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 18–27. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00339.x
Keywords:

    * case study based analysis;
    * collaborative learning;
    * technology-enabled education;
    * social software;
    * SWOT;
    * Web 2.0

Abstract

Social software is increasingly being used in higher and further education to support teaching and learning processes. These applications provide students with social and cognitive stimulation and also add to the interaction between students and educators. However, in addition to the benefits the introduction of social software into a course environment can also have adverse implications on students, educators and the education institution as a whole, a phenomenon which has received much less attention in the literature. In this study we explore the various implications of introducing social software into a course environment in order to identify the associated benefits, but also the potential drawbacks. We draw on data from 20 social software initiatives in UK-based higher and further education institutions to identify the diverse experiences and concerns of students and educators. The findings are presented in form of a SWOT analysis, which allows us to better understand the otherwise ambiguous implications of social software in terms of its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. From the analysis we have derived concrete recommendations for the use of social software as a teaching and learning tool.

Schroeder, A., Minocha, S. and Schneider, C. (2010), The strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of using social software in higher and further education teaching and learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 159–174. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00347.x
Keywords:

    * critical theory;
    * ICT;
    * Internet;
    * higher education;
    * university

Abstract  Despite huge efforts to position information and communication technology (ICT) as a central tenet of university teaching and learning, the fact remains that many university students and faculty make only limited formal academic use of computer technology. Whilst this is usually attributed to a variety of operational deficits on the part of students, faculty, and universities, this paper considers the wider social relations underpinning the relatively modest use of technology in higher education. The paper explores how university use of computer technology is shaped into marginalized and curtailed positions by a variety of actors. From the ‘writing’ of ICT at a national policy level through to the marginalization of ICT within the lived ‘student experience’, a consistent theme emerges where computer technology use is constructed in limited, linear, and rigid terms far removed from the creative, productive, and empowering uses which are often celebrated by educational technologists. In the light of such constraints, the paper considers how these dominant constructions of a peripheral and limited use of ICT may be challenged by the higher education community. In particular, it concludes by reflecting on current critical thinking about how educational technologists can foster a more expansive and empowered use of computer technology within university settings.

Selwyn, N. (2007), The use of computer technology in university teaching and learning: a critical perspective. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 83–94. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00204.x
Keywords:

    * computer use;
    * evaluation methodologies;
    * primary education;
    * questionnaire

Abstract  In the present study, we reject the view that computer use can be studied as an isolated variable in a learning environment. Our main objective is to develop an instrumental tool to measure different types of educational computer use in the classroom. This builds on a comprehensive review of the literature about computer use in education. This review helped to construct a questionnaire to identify a typology of computer use in primary education. In addition, the questionnaire was enriched by input of experts in this field. The questionnaire was presented to a sample of 352 primary school teachers. The input from a first subsample was used to carry out an exploratory factor analysis; the second subsample was used to verify the identified factor structure via confirmatory factor analysis. A three-factor structure of computer use in primary education was identified: ‘the use of computers as an information tool’, ‘the use of computers as a learning tool,’ and ‘learning basic computer skills’. The three-factor structure was confirmed in the confirmatory factor analysis. The results underpin a number of meaningful differences in the current practice of computer use in primary education.

Tondeur, J., Van Braak, J. and Valcke, M. (2007), Towards a typology of computer use in primary education. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 197–206. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00205.x
Keywords:

    * discussion forum;
    * networked learning;
    * social network analysis;
    * virtual learning environment

Abstract  This article explores the social network of learning beyond a functional understanding of social relations. It describes and interprets the realities of networked learning within a particular postgraduate course in an English university setting. It draws attention to some of the limitations of the increasing interest in the use of social network analysis (SNA) alongside content analysis of recent studies in the field of networked learning. In particular, SNA has been used to analyse response relations among participants in online discussions in terms of, for example, density and centrality. It argues for a different approach to a network of learning, focusing on the relational effects of multiple technical and social arrangements and engagements beyond the response relations the online environment is able to capture and store. This approach emphasizes network processes rather than network structures.

Enriquez, J. (2008), Translating networked learning: un-tying relational ties. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 116–127. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00273.x
Keywords:

    * computer;
    * critical reflection;
    * democracy;
    * empowerment;
    * participation

Abstract

The context of this article is the new technological environment and the struggle to use meaningful teaching practices in Norwegian schools. Students' critical reflections in two different technological learning environments in six upper secondary schools are compared. Three of these schools offer Internet-connected computers in special computer rooms outside ordinary classrooms, while the three other schools offer laptops to every student in class with a wireless connection to the Internet. The study relies on a quasi-experimental design. Data come from 719 student responses to a survey questionnaire and are analysed using multivariate regression. The findings are that critical reflection is enhanced in classrooms with laptops, controlling for students' motivation, self-efficacy, gender, grades and cultural background. On this basis, computers could have a significant potential for enhancing reflection and nourishing classroom discourse, knowledge development, and student empowerment. Motivation and self-efficacy have the strongest impact, while cultural capital has a minor effect on critical thinking. Students' grades seem to have no predictive power with respect to critical reflection. The results are discussed in relation to theories of Bildung, empowerment and democracy. Various implications for teaching are discussed.

Solhaug, T. (2009), Two configurations for accessing classroom computers: differential impact on students' critical reflections and their empowerment. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 411–422. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00318.x
Keywords:

    * computer attitudes;
    * pre-service teachers;
    * structural equation modeling;
    * technology acceptance model

Abstract  Computers are increasingly widespread, influencing many aspects of our social and work lives, As we move into a technology-based society, it is important that classroom experiences with computers are made available for all students. The purpose of this study is to examine pre-service teachers' attitudes towards computers. This study extends the technology acceptance model (TAM) framework, with subjective norm and facilitating conditions acting as external variables. Results shows that perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and subjective norm were significant determinants of pre-service computer attitudes. Facilitating conditions did not influence computer attitude directly but through perceived ease of use. These findings demonstrate that social norm and facilitating conditions are potential variables that may be used to extend the TAM for research on computer attitudes.

Teo, T., Lee, C. and Chai, C. (2008), Understanding pre-service teachers' computer attitudes: applying and extending the technology acceptance model. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 128–143. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00247.x
Keywords:

    * collaborative learning;
    * co-writing;
    * evaluation;
    * networked learning;
    * social software;
    * university teaching

Abstract  One critical issue arising in the educational use of collaborative learning concerns the teacher's difficulty in evaluating the contribution and participation of each student in group-work. This article aims to illustrate and discuss a methodology that enables evaluation of the collaborative learning process based on co-writing in a wiki environment. After considering the effectiveness of co-writing as a strategy of collaborative learning, the article will highlight issues regarding methods for evaluating each student's contribution to the collaborative process and to the group's overall action. A solution will be proposed to address the problem. It is based upon the elaboration of information traced automatically by wiki, employing survey grids and formulae developed ad hoc to calculate participation and contribution indexes. These tools will be illustrated together with their application in two university courses. Results demonstrate the added value given by the proposed approach to the evaluation process of co-writing. However, these findings also highlight critical issues and some possible remedies for the lack of specific wiki functions to automatically extract information required for quantitative analysis of the actions taken by members of the learning group.

Trentin, G. (2009), Using a wiki to evaluate individual contribution to a collaborative learning project. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 43–55. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00276.x
Keywords:

    * case study;
    * ICT curriculum;
    * ICT policy planning;
    * online tool;
    * primary education

Abstract

An important step towards the successful integration of information and communication technology (ICT) in schools is to facilitate their capacity to develop a school-based ICT policy resulting in an ICT policy plan. Such a plan can be defined as a school document containing strategic and operational elements concerning the integration of ICT in education. To write such a plan in an efficient way is challenging for schools. Therefore, an online tool [Planning for ICT in Schools (pICTos)] has been developed to guide schools in this process. A multiple case study research project was conducted with three Flemish primary schools to explore the process of developing a school-based ICT policy plan and the supportive role of pICTos within this process. Data from multiple sources (i.e. interviews with school leaders and ICT coordinators, school policy documents analysis and a teacher questionnaire) were collected and analysed. The results indicate that schools shape their ICT policy based on specific school data collected and presented by the pICTos environment. School teams learned about the actual and future place of ICT in teaching and learning. Consequently, different policy decisions were made according to each school's vision on ‘good’ education and ICT integration.

Vanderlinde, R., Van Braak, J. and Tondeur, J. (2010), Using an online tool to support school-based ICT policy planning in primary education. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 434–447. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00358.x
Keywords:

    * case study;
    * interactive whiteboard;
    * mediated;
    * multimedia;
    * primary;
    * qualitative

Abstract  All communication is inherently multimodal, and understandings of science need to be multidimensional. The interactive whiteboard offers a range of potential benefits to the primary science classroom in terms of relative ease of integration of a number of presentational and ICT functions, which, taken together, offers new opportunities for fostering multifaceted pedagogic strategies. In this case study, we examine in detail how a teacher pursues two themes across four science lessons. We examine how the teacher creates continuity in her students’ learning experiences through taking up some of the affordances of the IWB in order to represent scientific phenomena and engage children in activities to consolidate their understandings. Support is offered for the notion that while pedagogic goals and strategies must determine the selection of tools, rather than the ‘tail wagging the dog’ as in technology-focussed hyperbole, planned use of the interactive whiteboard, conceptualized as a ‘heterogeneous mediational tool kit’ (Wertsch 1991), can be effectively integrated into teaching practice.

Gillen, J., Littleton, K., Twiner, A., Staarman, J. and Mercer, N. (2008), Using the interactive whiteboard to resource continuity and support multimodal teaching in a primary science classroom. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 348–358. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00269.x
Keywords:

    * evaluation criteria;
    * factor analysis;
    * learning management systems;
    * reliability;
    * validity

Abstract  This study aims to validate a model for evaluating learning management systems (LMS) used in e-learning fields. A survey of 163 e-learning experts, regarding 81 validation items developed through literature review, was used to ascertain the importance of the criteria. A concise list of explanatory constructs, including two principle factors, was extracted from the responses of 133 respondents by exploratory factor analysis. Factor I was labeled as ‘instruction management, screen design, and technology’ and factor II, ‘interaction and evaluation’. Factors I and II consisted of four and three sub-factors, respectively. Confirmatory factor analysis, in turn, was carried out to assess the degree to which the plausibility of factor models was empirically confirmed. Overall fit measures (RMSEA, CFI, NNFI indexes) showed the model to be quite suitable for LMS evaluation. Reliability estimates using Cronbach's alpha indicated that the evaluation tool had good internal consistency. The overall results of the analyses suggest that this evaluation tool is highly instrumental for LMS.

Kim, S. and Lee, M. (2008), Validation of an evaluation model for learning management systems. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 284–294. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00260.x
Keywords:

    * argument diagram;
    * collaborative argumentation;
    * computer chat;
    * secondary education;
    * visualisation of argumentation

Abstract

This study investigates whether combining chat discussion and construction of an argument diagram stimulates students to formulate new ideas in practising argumentation. In this study, 16 secondary school students discussed vivisection and gender equality in pairs using both free and structured chat tools. In structured chat, the students selected and completed partial sentences provided by the computer. After the discussion, they jointly constructed either argument diagrams freely based on the previous discussions with an Internet tool or modified a diagram the computer had constructed automatically during the structured chat. The freely constructed diagrams contained more of the students' prior knowledge than the modified diagrams. However, the different types of diagrams did not differ significantly in breadth, depth, or balance of argumentation. Thus, free construction of argument diagrams seems to activate students to incorporate their prior knowledge into those diagrams.

Salminen, T., Marttunen, M. and Laurinen, L. (2010), Visualising knowledge from chat debates in argument diagrams. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 379–391. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00354.x
Keywords:

    * authentic learning;
    * learner-created content;
    * mobile-assisted language learning;
    * seamless learning;
    * vocabulary learning

Abstract

In recent years, we have witnessed the concomitant rise of communicative and contextualized approaches as well as the paradigmatic development of the mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) framework in analysing language learning. The focus of MALL research has gradually shifted from content-based (delivery of learning content through mobile devices) to design-oriented (authentic and/or social mobile learning activities) study. In this paper, we present two novel case studies of MALL that emphasize learner-created content. In learning English prepositions and Chinese idioms, respectively, the primary school students used the mobile devices assigned to them on a one-to-one basis to take photos in real-life contexts so as to construct sentences with the newly acquired prepositions or idioms. Subsequently, the learners were voraciously engaged in classroom or online discussion of their semantic constructions, thereby enhancing their understanding of the proper usage of the prepositions or idioms. This work shows the potential of transforming language learning into an authentic seamless learning experience.

Wong, L.-H. and Looi, C.-K. (2010), Vocabulary learning by mobile-assisted authentic content creation and social meaning-making: two case studies. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 421–433. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00357.x
Keywords:

    * collaboration;
    * constructivist;
    * guided discovery;
    * hypermedia;
    * problem solving

Abstract  The WebQuest as an instructional tool has recently been widely adopted in K-16 education. However, its underlying principles and functionality are not well understood, which has resulted in an inconsistency in practice. This study identifies the underlying constructs of WebQuests as perceived by teachers and variables affecting their perceptions on WebQuests. A survey was conducted on teachers (n = 226) recruited from one large research university in the USA and a professional listserv. The findings reveal three constructs perceived by teachers as critical to WebQuests: constructivist problem solving, social interaction and scaffolded learning. Results also show that variables like purpose of WebQuest use, years of teaching, years of WebQuest use and gender predict, at various degrees, teachers’ perceptions on WebQuests. Discussions are made on how the constructs identified can be used to improve online teaching and learning. Suggestions for future study are included by examining the influences of social, psychological and affective factors on learners’ learning in WebQuests.

Zheng, R., Perez, J., Williamson, J. and Flygare, J. (2008), WebQuests as perceived by teachers: implications for online teaching and learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 295–304. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00261.x
Keywords:

    * 1:1 laptops;
    * classroom technology practices;
    * ubiquitous computing

Abstract  The purpose of this study was to document typical use and configuration of 1:1 computing in two schools focusing on the added value and unique challenges these uses present. A qualitative case study design was used in two middle schools (sixth, seventh and eighth grade) in the south-eastern United States purposefully selected for their 1:1 computing programmes. Data were collected through formal and informal interviews, direct observations and site documents. Results indicated that online research, productivity tools, drill and practice, and eCommunications were the most frequent uses of computers in the 1:1 classroom. Moreover, the 1:1 classroom provided potentially transformative added value to these uses while simultaneously presenting unique management challenges to the teacher. In addition, the presence of 1:1 laptops did not automatically add value and their high financial costs underscore the need to provide teachers with high-quality professional development to ensure effective teaching. In order to create effective learning environments, teachers need opportunities to learn what instruction and assessment practices, curricular resources and classroom management skills work best in a 1:1 student to networked laptop classroom setting. Finally, researchers documented wide variation in fidelity to 1:1 computing, which suggests the need for further research exploring the conditions under which this variation exists.

Dunleavy, M., Dexter, S. and Heinecke, W. (2007), What added value does a 1:1 student to laptop ratio bring to technology-supported teaching and learning?. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 440–452. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00227.x
Keywords:

    * cognitive style;
    * e-learning;
    * FAM-WATA;
    * WATA system;
    * web-based formative assessment

Abstract   The web-based formative assessment developed in this research is named Formative Assessment Module of the Web-based Assessment and Test Analysis System (FAM-WATA). FAM-WATA is a multiple-choice web-based formative assessment module containing six effective strategies: ‘repeat the test’, ‘correct answers are not given’, ‘query scores’, ‘ask questions’, ‘monitor answering history’, and ‘all pass and then reward’. This research explored the effectiveness of FAM-WATA, cognitive styles and e-learning, and student attitudes towards the six strategies of FAM-WATA. A total of 503 seventh-grade students in central Taiwan were valid in this research. Overall results indicated that students displayed a positive attitude towards the six strategies of FAM-WATA. In addition, results also showed that students in an e-learning environment equipped with FAM-WATA achieved better learning effectiveness, and that field independent students appeared to make better use of FAM-WATA strategies than field dependent students. This research concluded that FAM-WATA benefited student learning in an e-learning environment.

Wang, T. (2007), What strategies are effective for formative assessment in an e-learning environment?. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 171–186. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00211.x
Keywords:

    * collaborative learning;
    * computer-mediated communication (CMC);
    * computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL);
    * content analysis;
    * interaction;
    * social presence

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to explore how groups decide to use asynchronous online discussion forums in a non-mandatory setting, and, after the group decision is made, how group members use online discussion forums to complete a collaborative learning project requiring complex data gathering and research processes. While a large body of research on computer-mediated communication (CMC) has documented successful intervention strategies to promote and sustain online discussion forums, little of the research has examined the use of online discussion forums in voluntarily contexts, wherein the decision to use online discussion forums is a personal decision and participation is not a graded component. This study approaches the research questions using a naturalistic case study of one graduate-level blended learning course with 55 students. Employing both student interviews and content analysis methods, this study revealed that the factors affecting the group decision to use online discussion forums are (1) successful or unsuccessful experiences during the first trial, (2) perceived affordances of CMC tools, and (3) the interplay between the nature of collaborative tasks and perceived efficiency. The content analysis of online postings in two voluntary groups revealed that when groups decided to use online discussion forums, participation levels were almost equal among individual group members, and discussion threads were sustained until the final completion of the collaborative project.

So, H.-J. (2009), When groups decide to use asynchronous online discussions: collaborative learning and social presence under a voluntary participation structure. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 143–160. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00293.x
Keywords:

    * collaboration;
    * experiment;
    * knowledge building;
    * wiki

Abstract

This study describes the empirical test of a theoretical model of knowledge building with wikis that was recently introduced by Cress and Kimmerle. The underlying assumption of this model is that both learning (as an internal, individual process) and knowledge building (as the creation of public knowledge) are based on the interplay between an individual's knowledge and the information available in the wiki. Incongruity between individual knowledge and the information contained in the wiki will lead to learning (through the acquisition of factual and conceptual knowledge) and to knowledge building (through assimilation and accommodation). In three conditions, the experiment provided the participants with different levels of incongruity between their individual knowledge and information in the wiki by varying the amount of information that was contained in the wiki, while the amount of information that the participants possessed was kept constant. As predicted, the results confirmed that a medium level of incongruity between an individual's knowledge and the information that a wiki contains will best support learning. Moreover, a medium level of incongruity leads to more accommodative knowledge building despite the fact that high and medium levels of incongruity will result in similar amounts of assimilative knowledge building. The implications of these findings were discussed in the concluding remarks.

Moskaliuk, J., Kimmerle, J. and Cress, U. (2009), Wiki-supported learning and knowledge building: effects of incongruity between knowledge and information. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 549–561. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00331.x
Keywords:

    * animation;
    * collaboration;
    * CSCL;
    * multimedia;
    * snapshots;
    * verbal interaction

Abstract  This paper focuses on the interaction patterns of learners studying in pairs who were provided with multimedia learning material. In a previous article, we reported that learning scores were higher for dyads of an ‘animations’ condition than for dyads of a ‘static pictures’ condition. Results also showed that offering a persistent display of one snapshot of each animated sequence hindered collaborative learning. In the present paper, further analyses of verbal interactions within learning dyads were performed in order to have a better understanding of both the beneficial effect of animations and the detrimental effect of the presence of persistent snapshots of critical steps on collaborative learning. Results did not show any differences in terms of verbal categories between the two versions of the instructional material, that is, static versus animated pictures. Pairs who were provided with persistent snapshots of the multimedia sequences produced fewer utterances compared to participants without the snapshots. In addition, the persistent snapshots were detrimental both in terms of providing information about the learning content and in terms of producing utterances solely for the purpose of managing the interaction. In this study, evidence also showed that these two verbal categories were positively related to learning performances. Finally, mediation analyses revealed that the negative effect of persistent snapshots was mediated by the fact that peers of the snapshots condition produced less information providing and interaction management utterances. Results are interpreted using a psycholinguistic framework applied to computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) literature and general guidelines are derived for the use of dynamic material and persistency tools in the design of CSCL environments.

Sangin, M., Dillenbourg, P., Rebetez, C., Bétrancourt, M. and Molinari, G. (2008), The effects of animations on verbal interaction in computer supported collaborative learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24: 394–406. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00275.x
Keywords:

    * agent–learner interaction;
    * EnALI;
    * expressiveness;
    * instructional design;
    * learner experience;
    * pedagogical agents

Abstract

The possible benefits of agent expressiveness have been highlighted in previous literature; yet, the issue of verbal expressiveness has been left unexplored. I hypothesize that agent verbal expressiveness may improve the interaction between pedagogical agents and learners, ultimately enhancing learning outcomes. Evidence from a quasi-experimental investigation, indicates that learners who interacted with an expressive agent 1) scored higher on a post-task exam; and 2) rated the agent's ability to interact higher, than learners who interacted with a nonexpressive agent. Qualitative results provided insight into this finding, while indicating the complexity of deploying pedagogical agents in educational settings.

Veletsianos, G. (2009), The impact and implications of virtual character expressiveness on learning and agent–learner interactions. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 345–357. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00317.x
/***
|''Name:''|zh-HantTranslationPlugin|
|''Description:''|Translation of TiddlyWiki into Traditional Chinese|
|''Source:''|http://tiddlywiki-zh.googlecode.com/svn/trunk/|
|''Subversion:''|http://svn.tiddlywiki.org/Trunk/association/locales/core/zh-Hant/locale.zh-Hant.js|
|''Author:''|BramChen (bram.chen (at) gmail (dot) com)|
|''Version:''|2.6|
|''Date:''|Oct 13, 2009|
|''Comments:''|Please make comments at http://groups.google.com/group/TiddlyWiki-zh/|
|''License:''|[[Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 License|http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/]]|
|''~CoreVersion:''|2.4.1|
***/

//{{{
// --
// -- Translateable strings
// --

// Strings in "double quotes" should be translated; strings in 'single quotes' should be left alone

config.locale = 'zh-Hant'; // W3C language tag
config.options.txtFileSystemCharSet = 'BIG5';

if (config.options.txtUserName == 'YourName' || !config.options.txtUserName) // do not translate this line, but do translate the next line
	merge(config.options,{txtUserName: "YourName"});

merge(config.tasks,{
	save: {text: "儲存", tooltip: "儲存變更至此 TiddlyWiki", action: saveChanges},
	sync: {text: "同步", tooltip: "將你的資料內容與外部伺服器與檔案同步", content: '<<sync>>'},
	importTask: {text: "導入", tooltip: "自其他檔案或伺服器導入文章或套件", content: '<<importTiddlers>>'},
	tweak: {text: "選項", tooltip: "改變此 TiddlyWiki 的顯示與行為的設定", content: '<<options>>'},
	upgrade: {text: "更新", tooltip: "更新 TiddlyWiki 核心程式", content: '<<upgrade>>'},
	plugins: {text: "套件管理", tooltip: "管理已安裝的套件", content: '<<plugins>>'}
});

merge(config.optionsDesc,{
	txtUserName: "編輯文章所使用之作者署名",
	chkRegExpSearch: "啟用正規式搜尋",
	chkCaseSensitiveSearch: "搜尋時,區分大小寫",
	chkIncrementalSearch: "隨打即找搜尋",
	chkAnimate: "使用動畫顯示",
	chkSaveBackups: "儲存變更前,保留備份檔案",
	chkAutoSave: "自動儲存變更",
	chkGenerateAnRssFeed: "儲存變更時,也儲存 RSS feed",
	chkSaveEmptyTemplate: "儲存變更時,也儲存空白範本",
	chkOpenInNewWindow: "於新視窗開啟連結",
	chkToggleLinks: "點擊已開啟文章連結時,將其關閉",
	chkHttpReadOnly: "非本機瀏覽文件時,隱藏編輯功能",
	chkForceMinorUpdate: "修改文章時,不變更作者名稱與日期時間",
	chkConfirmDelete: "刪除文章前須確認",
	chkInsertTabs: "使用 tab 鍵插入定位字元,而非跳至下一個欄位",
	txtBackupFolder: "存放備份檔案的資料夾",
	txtMaxEditRows: "編輯模式中顯示列數",
	txtTheme: "使用的佈景名稱",
	txtFileSystemCharSet: "指定儲存文件所在之檔案系統之字集 (僅適用於 Firefox/Mozilla only)"});

// Messages
merge(config.messages,{
	customConfigError: "套件載入發生錯誤,詳細請參考 PluginManager",
	pluginError: "發生錯誤: %0",
	pluginDisabled: "未執行,因標籤設為 'systemConfigDisable'",
	pluginForced: "已執行,因標籤設為 'systemConfigForce'",
	pluginVersionError: "未執行,套件需較新版本的 TiddlyWiki",
	nothingSelected: "尚未作任何選擇,至少需選擇一項",
	savedSnapshotError: "此 TiddlyWiki 未正確存檔,詳見 http://www.tiddlywiki.com/#Download",
	subtitleUnknown: "(未知)",
	undefinedTiddlerToolTip: "'%0' 尚無內容",
	shadowedTiddlerToolTip: "'%0' 尚無內容, 但已定義隱藏的預設值",
	tiddlerLinkTooltip: "%0 - %1, %2",
	externalLinkTooltip: "外部連結至 %0",
	noTags: "未設定標籤的文章",
	notFileUrlError: "須先將此 TiddlyWiki 存至檔案,才可儲存變更",
	cantSaveError: "無法儲存變更。可能的原因有:\n- 你的瀏覽器不支援此儲存功能(Firefox, Internet Explorer, Safari and Opera 經適當設定後可儲存變更)\n- 也可能是你的 TiddlyWiki 檔名包含不合法的字元所致。\n- 或是 TiddlyWiki 文件被改名或搬移。",
	invalidFileError: " '%0' 非有效之 TiddlyWiki 文件",
	backupSaved: "已儲存備份",
	backupFailed: "無法儲存備份",
	rssSaved: "RSS feed 已儲存",
	rssFailed: "無法儲存 RSS feed ",
	emptySaved: "已儲存範本",
	emptyFailed: "無法儲存範本",
	mainSaved: "主要的TiddlyWiki已儲存",
	mainFailed: "無法儲存主要 TiddlyWiki,所作的改變未儲存",
	macroError: "巨集 <<\%0>> 執行錯誤",
	macroErrorDetails: "執行巨集 <<\%0>> 時,發生錯誤 :\n%1",
	missingMacro: "無此巨集",
	overwriteWarning: "'%0' 已存在,[確定]覆寫之",
	unsavedChangesWarning: "注意! 尚未儲存變更\n\n[確定]存檔,或[取消]放棄存檔?",
	confirmExit: "--------------------------------\n\nTiddlyWiki 以更改內容尚未儲存,繼續的話將遺失這些更動\n\n--------------------------------",
	saveInstructions: "SaveChanges",
	unsupportedTWFormat: "未支援此 TiddlyWiki 格式:'%0'",
	tiddlerSaveError: "儲存文章 '%0' 時,發生錯誤。",
	tiddlerLoadError: "載入文章 '%0' 時,發生錯誤。",
	wrongSaveFormat: "無法使用格式 '%0' 儲存,請使用標准格式存放",
	invalidFieldName: "無效的欄位名稱:%0",
	fieldCannotBeChanged: "無法變更欄位:'%0'",
	loadingMissingTiddler: "正從伺服器 '%1' 的:\n\n工作區 '%3' 中的 '%2' 擷取文章 '%0'",
	upgradeDone: "已更新至 %0 版\n\n點擊 '確定' 重新載入更新後的 TiddlyWiki"});

merge(config.messages.messageClose,{
	text: "關閉",
	tooltip: "關閉此訊息"});

merge(config.messages,{
	backstage: {
		open: {text: "控制台", tooltip: "開啟控制台執行編寫工作"},
		close: {text: "關閉", tooltip: "關閉控制台"},
		prompt: "控制台:",
		decal: {
			edit: {text: "編輯", tooltip: "編輯 '%0'"}
		}}});

merge(config.messages,{
	listView: {
		tiddlerTooltip: "檢視全文",
		previewUnavailable: "(無法預覽)"}});

merge(config.messages,{
	dates: {
	months: ["一月", "二月", "三月", "四月", "五月", "六月", "七月", "八月", "九月", "十月", "十一月", "十二月"],
	days: ["星期日", "星期一","星期二", "星期三", "星期四", "星期五", "星期六"],
	shortMonths: ["一", "二", "三", "四", "五", "六", "七", "八", "九", "十", "十一", "十二"],
	shortDays: ["日", "一","二", "三", "四", "五", "六"],
	daySuffixes: ["st","nd","rd","th","th","th","th","th","th","th",
		"th","th","th","th","th","th","th","th","th","th",
		"st","nd","rd","th","th","th","th","th","th","th",
		"st"],
	am: "上午",
	pm: "下午"}});

merge(config.messages.tiddlerPopup,{ 
	});

merge(config.views.wikified.tag,{
	labelNoTags: "未設標籤",
	labelTags: "標籤: ",
	openTag: "開啟標籤 '%0'",
	tooltip: "顯示標籤為 '%0' 的文章",
	openAllText: "開啟以下所有文章",
	openAllTooltip: "開啟以下所有文章",
	popupNone: "僅此文標籤為 '%0'"});

merge(config.views.wikified,{
	defaultText: "",
	defaultModifier: "(未完成)",
	shadowModifier: "(預設)",
	dateFormat: "YYYY年0MM月0DD日",
	createdPrompt: "建立於"});

merge(config.views.editor,{
	tagPrompt: "設定標籤之間以空白區隔,[[標籤含空白時請使用雙中括弧]],或點選現有之標籤加入",
	defaultText: ""});

merge(config.views.editor.tagChooser,{
	text: "標籤",
	tooltip: "點選現有之標籤加至本文章",
	popupNone: "未設定標籤",
	tagTooltip: "加入標籤 '%0'"});

merge(config.messages,{
	sizeTemplates:
		[
		{unit: 1024*1024*1024, template: "%0\u00a0GB"},
		{unit: 1024*1024, template: "%0\u00a0MB"},
		{unit: 1024, template: "%0\u00a0KB"},
		{unit: 1, template: "%0\u00a0B"}
		]});

merge(config.macros.search,{
	label: " 尋找",
	prompt: "搜尋本 Wiki",
	accessKey: "F",
	successMsg: " %0 篇符合條件: %1",
	failureMsg: " 無符合條件: %0"});

merge(config.macros.tagging,{
	label: "引用標籤:",
	labelNotTag: "無引用標籤",
	tooltip: "列出標籤為 '%0' 的文章"});

merge(config.macros.timeline,{
	dateFormat: "YYYY年0MM月0DD日"});

merge(config.macros.allTags,{
	tooltip: "顯示文章- 標籤為'%0'",
	noTags: "沒有標籤"});

config.macros.list.all.prompt = "依字母排序";
config.macros.list.missing.prompt = "被引用且內容空白的文章";
config.macros.list.orphans.prompt = "未被引用的文章";
config.macros.list.shadowed.prompt = "這些隱藏的文章已預設內容";
config.macros.list.touched.prompt = "自下載或新增後被修改過的文章"; 

merge(config.macros.closeAll,{
	label: "全部關閉",
	prompt: "關閉所有開啟中的 tiddler (編輯中除外)"});

merge(config.macros.permaview,{
	label: "引用連結",
	prompt: "可存取現有開啟之文章的連結位址"});

merge(config.macros.saveChanges,{
	label: "儲存變更",
	prompt: "儲存所有文章,產生新的版本",
	accessKey: "S"});

merge(config.macros.newTiddler,{
	label: "新增文章",
	prompt: "新增 tiddler",
	title: "新增文章",
	accessKey: "N"});

merge(config.macros.newJournal,{
	label: "新增日誌",
	prompt: "新增 jounal",
	accessKey: "J"});

merge(config.macros.options,{
	wizardTitle: "增訂的進階選項",
	step1Title: "增訂的選項儲存於瀏覽器的 cookies",
	step1Html: "<input type='hidden' name='markList'></input><br><input type='checkbox' checked='false' name='chkUnknown'>顯示未知選項</input>",
	unknownDescription: "//(未知)//",
	listViewTemplate: {
		columns: [
			{name: 'Option', field: 'option', title: "選項", type: 'String'},
			{name: 'Description', field: 'description', title: "說明", type: 'WikiText'},
			{name: 'Name', field: 'name', title: "名稱", type: 'String'}
			],
		rowClasses: [
			{className: 'lowlight', field: 'lowlight'}
			]}
	});

merge(config.macros.plugins,{
	wizardTitle: "擴充套件管理",
	step1Title: "- 已載入之套件",
	step1Html: "<input type='hidden' name='markList'></input>", // DO NOT TRANSLATE
	skippedText: "(此套件因剛加入,故尚未執行)",
	noPluginText: "未安裝套件",
	confirmDeleteText: "確認是否刪除所選套件:\n\n%0",
	removeLabel: "移除 systemConfig 標籤",
	removePrompt: "移除 systemConfig 標籤",
	deleteLabel: "刪除",
	deletePrompt: "永遠刪除所選套件",

	listViewTemplate : {
		columns: [
			{name: 'Selected', field: 'Selected', rowName: 'title', type: 'Selector'},
			{name: 'Tiddler', field: 'tiddler', title: "套件", type: 'Tiddler'},
			{name: 'Description', field: 'desc', title: "說明", type: 'String'},
			{name: 'Version', field: 'Version', title: "版本", type: 'String'},
			{name: 'Size', field: 'size', tiddlerLink: 'size', title: "大小", type: 'Size'},
			{name: 'Forced', field: 'forced', title: "強制執行", tag: 'systemConfigForce', type: 'TagCheckbox'},
			{name: 'Disabled', field: 'disabled', title: "停用", tag: 'systemConfigDisable', type: 'TagCheckbox'},
			{name: 'Executed', field: 'executed', title: "已載入", type: "Boolean", trueText: "是", falseText: "否"},
			{name: 'Startup Time', field: 'startupTime', title: "載入時間", type: 'String'},
			{name: 'Error', field: 'error', title: "載入狀態", type: 'Boolean', trueText: "錯誤", falseText: "正常"},
			{name: 'Log', field: 'log', title: "紀錄", type: 'StringList'}
			],
		rowClasses: [
			{className: 'error', field: 'error'},
			{className: 'warning', field: 'warning'}
			]}
	});

merge(config.macros.toolbar,{
	moreLabel: "+",
	morePrompt: "顯示更多工具列命令",
	lessLabel: "-",
	lessPrompt: "隱藏部份工具列命令",
	separator: "|"
	});
	
merge(config.macros.refreshDisplay,{
	label: "刷新",
	prompt: "刷新此 TiddlyWiki 顯示"
	});
	
merge(config.macros.importTiddlers,{
	readOnlyWarning: "TiddlyWiki 於唯讀模式下,不支援導入文章。請由本機(file://)開啟 TiddlyWiki 文件",
	wizardTitle: "自其他檔案或伺服器導入文章",
	step1Title: "步驟一:指定伺服器或來源文件",
	step1Html: "指定伺服器類型:<select name='selTypes'><option value=''>選取...</option></select><br>請輸入網址或路徑:<input type='text' size=50 name='txtPath'><br>...或選擇來源文件:<input type='file' size=50 name='txtBrowse'><br><hr>...或選擇指定的饋入來源:<select name='selFeeds'><option value=''>選取...</option></select>",
	openLabel: "開啟",
	openPrompt: "開啟檔案或",
	openError: "讀取來源文件時發生錯誤",
	statusOpenHost: "正與伺服器建立連線",
	statusGetWorkspaceList: "正在取得可用之文章清單",
	errorGettingTiddlerList: "取得文章清單時發生錯誤,請點選「取消」後重試。",
	step2Title: "步驟二:選擇工作區",
	step2Html: "輸入工作區名稱:<input type='text' size=50 name='txtWorkspace'><br>...或選擇工作區:<select name='selWorkspace'><option value=''>選取...</option></select>",
	cancelLabel: "取消",
	cancelPrompt: "取消本次導入動作",
	statusOpenWorkspace: "正在開啟工作區",
	statusGetTiddlerList: "正在取得可用之文章清單",
	step3Title: "步驟三:選擇欲導入之文章",
	step3Html: "<input type='hidden' name='markList'></input><br><input type='checkbox' checked='true' name='chkSync'>保持這些文章與伺服器的連結,便於同步後續的變更。</input><br><input type='checkbox' name='chkSave'>儲存此伺服器的詳細資訊於標籤為 'systemServer' 的文章名為:</input> <input type='text' size=25 name='txtSaveTiddler'>", 
	importLabel: "導入",
	importPrompt: "導入所選文章",
	confirmOverwriteText: "確定要覆寫這些文章:\n\n%0",
	step4Title: "步驟四:正在導入%0 篇文章",
	step4Html: "<input type='hidden' name='markReport'></input>", // DO NOT TRANSLATE
	doneLabel: "完成",
	donePrompt: "關閉",
	statusDoingImport: "正在導入文章 ...",
	statusDoneImport: "所選文章已導入",
	systemServerNamePattern: "%2 位於 %1",
	systemServerNamePatternNoWorkspace: "%1",
	confirmOverwriteSaveTiddler: "此 tiddler '%0' 已經存在。點擊「確定」以伺服器上料覆寫之,或「取消」不變更後離開",
	serverSaveTemplate: "|''Type:''|%0|\n|''網址:''|%1|\n|''工作區:''|%2|\n\n此文為自動產生紀錄伺服器之相關資訊。",
	serverSaveModifier: "(系統)",

	listViewTemplate: {
		columns: [
			{name: 'Selected', field: 'Selected', rowName: 'title', type: 'Selector'},
			{name: 'Tiddler', field: 'tiddler', title: "文章", type: 'Tiddler'},
			{name: 'Size', field: 'size', tiddlerLink: 'size', title: "大小", type: 'Size'},
			{name: 'Tags', field: 'tags', title: "標籤", type: 'Tags'}
			],
		rowClasses: [
			]}
	});

merge(config.macros.upgrade,{
	wizardTitle: "更新 TiddlyWiki 核心程式",
	step1Title: "更新或修補此 TiddlyWiki 至最新版本",
	step1Html: "您將更新至最新版本的 TiddlyWiki 核心程式 (自 <a href='%0' class='externalLink' target='_blank'>%1</a>)。 在更新過程中,您的資料將被保留。<br><br>請注意:更新核心可能不相容於其他套件。若對更新的檔案有問題,詳見 <a href='http://www.tiddlywiki.org/wiki/CoreUpgrades' class='externalLink' target='_blank'>http://www.tiddlywiki.org/wiki/CoreUpgrades</a>",
	errorCantUpgrade: "j無法更新此 TiddlyWiki. 您只能自本機端的 TiddlyWiki 檔案執行更新程序",
	errorNotSaved: "執行更新之前,請先儲存變更",
	step2Title: "確認更新步驟",
	step2Html_downgrade: "您的 TiddlyWiki 將自 %1 版降級至 %0版。<br><br>不建議降級至較舊的版本。",
	step2Html_restore: "此 TiddlyWiki 核心已是最新版 (%0)。<br><br>您可以繼續更新作業以確認核心程式未曾毀損。",
	step2Html_upgrade: "您的 TiddlyWiki 将自 %1 版更新至 %0 版",
	upgradeLabel: "更新",
	upgradePrompt: "準備更新作業",
	statusPreparingBackup: "準備備份中",
	statusSavingBackup: "備份檔案",
	errorSavingBackup: "備份檔案時發生問題",
	statusLoadingCore: "核心程式載入中",
	errorLoadingCore: "載入核心程式時,發生錯誤",
	errorCoreFormat: "新版核心程式發生錯誤",
	statusSavingCore: "正在儲存新版核心程式",
	statusReloadingCore: "新版核心程式載入中",
	startLabel: "開始",
	startPrompt: "開始更新作業",
	cancelLabel: "取消",
	cancelPrompt: "取消更新作業",
	step3Title: "已取消更新作業",
	step3Html: "您已取消更新作業"
	});

merge(config.macros.sync,{
	listViewTemplate: {
		columns: [
			{name: 'Selected', field: 'selected', rowName: 'title', type: 'Selector'},
			{name: 'Tiddler', field: 'tiddler', title: "文章", type: 'Tiddler'},
			{name: 'Server Type', field: 'serverType', title: "伺服器類型", type: 'String'},
			{name: 'Server Host', field: 'serverHost', title: "伺服器主機", type: 'String'},
			{name: 'Server Workspace', field: 'serverWorkspace', title: "伺服器工作區", type: 'String'},
			{name: 'Status', field: 'status', title: "同步情形", type: 'String'},
			{name: 'Server URL', field: 'serverUrl', title: "伺服器網址", text: "檢視", type: 'Link'}
			],
		rowClasses: [
			],
		buttons: [
			{caption: "同步更新這些文章", name: 'sync'}
			]},
	wizardTitle: "將你的資料內容與外部伺服器與檔案同步",
	step1Title: "選擇欲同步的文章",
	step1Html: '<input type="hidden" name="markList"></input>', // DO NOT TRANSLATE
	syncLabel: "同步",
	syncPrompt: "同步更新這些文章",
	hasChanged: "已更動",
	hasNotChanged: "未更動",
	syncStatusList: {
		none: {text: "...", display:null, className:'notChanged'},
		changedServer: {text: "伺服器資料已更動", display:null, className:'changedServer'},
		changedLocally: {text: "本機資料已更動", display:null, className:'changedLocally'},
		changedBoth: {text: "已同時更新本機與伺服器上的資料", display:null, className:'changedBoth'},
		notFound: {text: "伺服器無此資料", display:null, className:'notFound'},
		putToServer: {text: "已儲存更新資料至伺服器", display:null, className:'putToServer'},
		gotFromServer: {text: "已從伺服器擷取更新資料", display:null, className:'gotFromServer'}
		}
	});

merge(config.macros.annotations,{
	});

merge(config.commands.closeTiddler,{
	text: "關閉",
	tooltip: "關閉本文"});

merge(config.commands.closeOthers,{
	text: "關閉其他",
	tooltip: "關閉其他文章"});

merge(config.commands.editTiddler,{
	text: "編輯",
	tooltip: "編輯本文",
	readOnlyText: "檢視",
	readOnlyTooltip: "檢視本文之原始內容"});

merge(config.commands.saveTiddler,{
	text: "完成",
	tooltip: "確定修改"});

merge(config.commands.cancelTiddler,{
	text: "取消",
	tooltip: "取消修改",
	warning: "確定取消對 '%0' 的修改嗎?",
	readOnlyText: "完成",
	readOnlyTooltip: "返回正常顯示模式"});

merge(config.commands.deleteTiddler,{
	text: "刪除",
	tooltip: "刪除文章",
	warning: "確定刪除 '%0'?"});

merge(config.commands.permalink,{
	text: "引用連結",
	tooltip: "本文引用連結"});

merge(config.commands.references,{
	text: "引用",
	tooltip: "引用本文的文章",
	popupNone: "本文未被引用"});

merge(config.commands.jump,{
	text: "捲頁",
	tooltip: "捲頁至其他已開啟的文章"});

merge(config.commands.syncing,{
	text: "同步",
	tooltip: "本文章與伺服器或其他外部檔案的同步資訊",
	currentlySyncing: "<div>同步類型:<span class='popupHighlight'>'%0'</span></"+"div><div>與伺服器:<span class='popupHighlight'>%1 同步</span></"+"div><div>工作區:<span class='popupHighlight'>%2</span></"+"div>", // Note escaping of closing <div> tag
	notCurrentlySyncing: "無進行中的同步動作",
	captionUnSync: "停止同步此文章",
	chooseServer: "與其他伺服器同步此文章:",
	currServerMarker: "\u25cf ",
	notCurrServerMarker: "  "});

merge(config.commands.fields,{
	text: "欄位",
	tooltip: "顯示此文章的擴充資訊",
	emptyText: "此文章沒有擴充欄位",
	listViewTemplate: {
		columns: [
			{name: 'Field', field: 'field', title: "擴充欄位", type: 'String'},
			{name: 'Value', field: 'value', title: "內容", type: 'String'}
			],
		rowClasses: [
			],
		buttons: [
			]}});

merge(config.shadowTiddlers,{
	DefaultTiddlers: "[[GettingStarted]]",
	GettingStarted: "使用此 TiddlyWiki 的空白範本之前,請先修改以下預設文章:\n* SiteTitle 及 SiteSubtitle:網站的標題和副標題,顯示於頁面上方<br />(在儲存變更後,將顯示於瀏覽器視窗的標題列)。\n* MainMenu:主選單(通常在頁面左側)。\n* DefaultTiddlers:內含一些文章的標題,可於載入TiddlyWiki 後的預設開啟。\n請輸入您的大名,作為所建立/ 編輯的文章署名:<<option txtUserName>>",
	MainMenu: "[[使用說明|GettingStarted]]\n\n\n版本:<<version>>",
	OptionsPanel: "這些設定將暫存於瀏覽器\n請簽名<<option txtUserName>>\n (範例:WikiWord)\n\n <<option chkSaveBackups>> 儲存備份\n <<option chkAutoSave>> 自動儲存\n <<option chkRegExpSearch>> 正規式搜尋\n <<option chkCaseSensitiveSearch>> 區分大小寫搜尋\n <<option chkAnimate>> 使用動畫顯示\n----\n [[進階選項|AdvancedOptions]]",
	SiteTitle: "我的 TiddlyWiki",
	SiteSubtitle: "一個可重複使用的個人網頁式筆記本",
	SiteUrl: '',
	SideBarOptions: '<<search>><<closeAll>><<permaview>><<newTiddler>><<newJournal " YYYY年0MM月0DD日" "日誌">><<saveChanges>><<slider chkSliderOptionsPanel OptionsPanel "偏好設定 \u00bb" "變更 TiddlyWiki 選項">>',
	SideBarTabs: '<<tabs txtMainTab "最近更新" "依更新日期排序" TabTimeline "全部" "所有文章" TabAll "分類" "所有標籤" TabTags "更多" "其他" TabMore>>',
	StyleSheet: '[[StyleSheetLocale]]',
	TabMore: '<<tabs txtMoreTab "未完成" "內容空白的文章" TabMoreMissing "未引用" "未被引用的文章" TabMoreOrphans "預設文章" "已預設內容的隱藏文章" TabMoreShadowed>>'
});

merge(config.annotations,{
	AdvancedOptions: "此預設文章可以存取一些進階選項。",
	ColorPalette: "此預設文章裡的設定值,將決定 ~TiddlyWiki 使用者介面的配色。",
	DefaultTiddlers: "當 ~TiddlyWiki 在瀏覽器中開啟時,此預設文章裡列出的文章,將被自動顯示。",
	EditTemplate: "此預設文章裡的 HTML template 將決定文章進入編輯模式時的顯示版面。",
	GettingStarted: "此預設文章提供基本的使用說明。",
	ImportTiddlers: "此預設文章提供存取導入中的文章。",
	MainMenu: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕左側主選單的內容",
	MarkupPreHead: "此文章的內容將加至 TiddlyWiki 文件的 <head> 段落的起始",
	MarkupPostHead: "此文章的內容將加至 TiddlyWiki 文件的 <head> 段落的最後",
	MarkupPreBody: "此文章的內容將加至 TiddlyWiki 文件的 <body> 段落的起始",
	MarkupPostBody: "此文章的內容將加至 TiddlyWiki 文件的 <body> 段落的最後,於 script 區塊之後",
	OptionsPanel: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的選項面板裡的內容",
	PageTemplate: "此預設文章裡的 HTML template 決定的 ~TiddlyWiki 主要的版面配置",
	PluginManager: "此預設文章提供存取套件管理員",
	SideBarOptions: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中選項面板裡的內容",
	SideBarTabs: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的頁籤面板裡的內容",
	SiteSubtitle: "此預設文章的內容為頁面的副標題",
	SiteTitle: "此預設文章的內容為頁面的主標題",
	SiteUrl: "此預設文章的內容須設定為文件發佈時的完整網址",
	StyleSheetColors: "此預設文章內含的 CSS 規則,為相關的頁面元素的配色。''勿修改此文'',請於 StyleSheet 中作增修",
	StyleSheet: "此預設文章內容可包含 CSS 規則",
	StyleSheetLayout: "此預設文章內含的 CSS 規則,為相關的頁面元素的版面配置。''勿修改此文'',請於 StyleSheet 中作增修",
	StyleSheetLocale: "此預設文章內含的 CSS 規則,可依翻譯語系做適當調整",
	StyleSheetPrint: "此預設文章內含的 CSS 規則,用於列印時的樣式",
	TabAll: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的「全部」頁籤的內容",
	TabMore: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的「更多」頁籤的內容",
	TabMoreMissing: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的「未完成」頁籤的內容",
	TabMoreOrphans: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的「未引用」頁籤的內容",
	TabMoreShadowed: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的「預設文章」頁籤的內容",
	TabTags: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的「分類」頁籤的內容",
	TabTimeline: "此預設文章的內容,為於螢幕右側副選單中的「最近更新」頁籤的內容",
	ToolbarCommands: "此預設文章的內容,為顯示於文章工具列之命令",
	ViewTemplate: "此預設文章裡的 HTML template 決定文章顯示的樣子"
	});
//}}}
Crook, C. and Joiner, R. (2010), ‘CAL’– Past, present and beyond. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26: 1–3. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00343.x
Keywords:

    * conferencing;
    * dialogue;
    * distance;
    * interface;
    * IT use;
    * questionnaire

Abstract   This paper reports on research to investigate design features of asynchronous discussion systems for higher education. The research aims to identify features that increase the benefits of discussion systems and reduce the problems. The paper focuses on a major theme that emerged from interviews with learners and teachers: information overload.

Interview findings, together with literature and system reviews, were used to identify four areas of possible system enhancement aimed at alleviating overload: branched message threading; user recommendations of messages; message filtering; and a personal ‘clippings’ area for useful messages. The paper discusses these enhancements and their evaluation in a prototype discussion system used on a UK Open University course.

Data from the student evaluation indicated that students preferred branched threading to linear threading; they thought filtering and clippings were helpful in principle, although they did not use them very much; and they felt uncomfortable with the idea of recommending each others' messages. Students felt less overloaded in the second part of the course, which was when the system enhancements were made available.

Kear, K. and Heap, N. (2007), ‘Sorting the wheat from the chaff’: investigating overload in educational discussion systems. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23: 235–247. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00212.x